UNIVERSITY  OR 
ILLINOIS  LIBRARY 
URBANA-CHAMPAIGN 


JJ«  .>L 


LIBRARY 
OF  THE 
UNIVERSITY  OF 


THE 

FARMER'S  AND  EMIGRANT'S  • 


HAID  BOOK: 


FULL   AND   COMPLETE    GUIDE 


FARMER  AND   THE   EMIGRANT. 

COMPRISING    THE 

ft 

CLEARING    OF    FOREST    AND    PRAIRIE    LAND GARDENING FARMING 

GENERALLY FARRIERY— COOKERY AND    THE    PRE- 
VENTION   AND    CURE    OF    DISEASES. 

WITH    COPIOUS    HINTS,    RECIPES,    AND    TABLES, 


BY    JOSIAH    T.    MARSHALL,1 

AUTHOR    OP    THE    EMIGRANT'S    TRUE    GUIPE. 


BOSTON: 
PUBLISHED    BY    H .    WENT  WORTH, 

86    WASHINGTON    STREET. 

1852. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1S49,  by 

H  .    H  .    H  A  W  L  E  Y  &  CO. 
in  the  Clerk's  office  of  the  District  Court  of  Connecticut. 


imiisnv  in  I.I--.M 


TO 

JOHN    JACOB    AS  TOR, 

OF      NEW-YORK, 
- 
AN  EMIGRANT  FROM  THE  RHINE, 

iX   HONOR   TO   THE  COUNTRY   OF   HIS   BIRTH    AND   OF   HIS    ADOPTION, 

TOs  unptBttnlifCnfl  TToIume  f»  wactfibefc, 

WITH    THE    VERY   GREAT    RESPECT   OF 

fTHE    AUTHOR. 

'1 

' 


NOTICE    BY   THE    PUBLISHERS. 


IN  times  past,  the  European  emigrants,  and  even  the 
settlers  from  the  Atlantic  States  who  removed  to  the 
West,  were  exposed  to  numberless  trials  and  disadvan- 
tages, chiefly  arising  from  the  dearth  of  essential  informa- 
tion concerning  the  various  novel  circumstances  in  which 
the  change  of  their  abode  and  habits  of  life  unavoidably 
placed  them.  A  luminous  and  ample  Directory  and 
"*Guide,  compr-ehensive  and  minute,  the  result  of  experi- 
ence and  observation,  has  long  been  desired  by  both  of 
the  classes  of  persons  referred  to ;  and  also  by  those  who 
have  been  born  and  nurtured  in  the  newly  opened  dis- 
tricts. 

The  Publishers  are  gratified    that   they  are    enabled 
.   ;to   satisfy   the    universal    demand,    by  a  volume   which 
'  -^comprises   a  mass  of  superior  materials,   partly  derived 
;,   -from  the  most  authentic  sources,  and  partly  obtained  by  ex- 
' '-  tensive  and  protracted  research.     Some  of  the  most  valua- 
ble articles  have  been  taken  from  the  transactions  of  the 
%'mew  York  State  Agricultural  Society ;  others  have  been 
T    selected  from  the  periodical  miscellanies  devoted  to  the 
**  concerns  of  a   farm  and  to  the  manner  of  life  in  the  new 
'^settlements.     To  a  monthly  work  published  at  Chicago, 

Entitled  the  "  Prairie  Farmer,"  the  author  has  frequently 
dverted,   as  a   most  useful  and  necessary  instructor  for 
all   those    who  would   derive    advantage   from  long-tried 
0  skill   and  practical  attention  to  the  multiplied  efforts  of 
^  those  who  have  passed  through  all  the  gradations  of  a 
settler's  life ;  from  the  primary  chopping  of  trees  and  a 


I 


log-cabin,  to  the  enjoyment  of  all  the  beauty  and  com- 
forts of  a  luxuriant  and  fertile  garden-spot,  replete  with 
opulence  and  ornament. 

The  contents  of  the  "  Farmer's  and  Emigrant's  Hand- 
Book"  can  be  accurately  known  and  duly  estimated,  only 
by  a  recurrence  to  the  Index  of  subjects  ;  which  occupies 
twenty-four  columns,  comprising  about  fifteen  hundred  dif- 
ferent points  of  information  respecting  the  management 
of  a  Farm,  from  the  first  purchase  and  clearing  of  the 
land  to  all  its  extensive  details  and  departments.  The 
necessary  conveniences,  the  household  economy,  the  care 
of  the  animals,  the  preservation  of  domestic  health  ;  the 
cultivation  of  fruits,  with  the  science  and  taste  of  the  ar- 
borist,  and  the  production  of  the  most  advantageous  arti- 
cles for  sale,  are  all  displayed  in  a  plain,  instructive,  and 
most  satisfactory  manner ;  adapted  peculiarly  to  the  classes 
of  citizens  for  whose  use  and  benefit  the  work  is  specially 
designed.  Besides  a  general  outline  of  the  Constitution, 
with  the  Naturalization  and  Pre-emption  Laws  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,  there  is  appended  a  Miscellany  of  120  pages,  in- 
cluding a  rich  variety  of  advice,  hints,  and  rules,  the  study 
and  knowledge  of  which  will  unspeakably  promote  both  the 
comfort  and  welfare  of  all  who  adopt  and  practise  them. 

The  Publishers  are  assured  that  the  commendations 
which  the  "  Farmer's  and  Emigrant's  Hand-Book"  has 
received  are  fully  merited  ;  and  they  respectfully  submit 
the  work  to  Agriculturists,  in  the  full  conviction  that  the 
Farmer  or  the  Emigrant,  in  any  part  of  the  country,  will 
derive  numberless  blessings  and  improvements  from  his 
acquaintance  with  Mr.  Marshall's  manual. 

HATITFQRD,  (Conn.)  1849. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   I 

MM* 
Purchasing  and  Clearing  Timber  Land,        .  .13 

CHAPTER    TT 
Prairie  Fanning,        -         ....  .93 

CHAPTER    III. 
On  the  general  management  of  a  Farm,        ....         33 

CH.APTER   IV. 
Farm  Buildings,  Fences,  etc.         .--.-.        57 

CHAPTER   V. 
The  Dairy,  - .        -       105 

CHAPTER    VI. 

Household  Department,  comprising  all  kind  of  Cookery,  etc.     -      121 

CHAPTER    VII. 

Diseases  of  Cattle,  Sheep,  Horses,  Swine,  etc.,  and  the  Remedies,  173 

CHAPTER    VIII. 

Medical  Department :  with  hints  for  the  preservation  of  Health ; 

and  the  treatment  of  Wounds,  Bites,  Accidents,  etc.      -      233 


Viii  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER    IX. 

PAGE. 

The  Fruit  Garden,  and  Forest  and  Fruit-trees,        ...       285 

CHAPTER    X. 
Cultivation  of  Dyer's  Madder,       ......       315 

CHAPTER    XI. 
Curing  Provisions  for  the  English  Market,  etc.  etc.        -        -        323 

CHAPTER    XII. 
Lard  Oils,  etc.  etc.         -         .         -         -         -         -        .330 

CHAPTER    XIIT. 
Hops,  etc.  etc. 335 

CHAPTER    XIV^ 
Glance  at  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  etc.        -      -        341 

CHAPTER    XV. 

Naturalization  and  Preemption  Laws,  ..  350 

CHAPTER    XVI. 

MISCELLANY  : — Containing  a  vast  variety  of  Recipes,  Hints,  Ta- 
bles, Facts,  etc.  etc.,  to  aid  the  Emigrant,  whether  male 
or  female,  in  daily  life,  ....  -  359 

IWDBI, -        481 


THE 


FARMER'S  AND  EMIGRANT'S 

HAND-BOOK. 


CHAPTER   I. 

PURCHASING   AND   CLEARING   TIMBERED   LAND. 

THOSE  emigrants  who  decide  upon  purchasing  wild 
land,  whether  forest  or  prairie,  should  be  exceedingly 
cautious  in  every  stage  of  the  business.  Everything 
depends  on  making  a  good  selection.  We  have  known 
persons  to  toil  on  for  years,  with  little  advantage  to  them- 
selves, and  then  give  back  the  land  they  had  purchased 
and  partly  paid  for,  simply  because  of  having  made  a 
bad  choice  at  the  outset.  A  mistake  of  the  kind  alluded 
to,  is  a  most  serious  one  to  the  new  settler.  Besides  the 
waste  of  time  and  money  it  occasions,  it  tends  to  discourage 
him,  and  seldom  does  he  fully  recover  from  the  disaster. 

The  emigrant  should  not  be  in  too  great  a  hurry  to  get 
settled.  Although  it  is  desirable  that  he  get  a  home  as 
early  as  practicable,  and  begin  his  arduous  labors,  it  is 
poor  policy  to  purchase  without  much  consideration.  It 
is  of  the  very  highest  importance  that  he  SEE  THE  LAND 
BEFORE  PURCHASING  IT.  On  this  point  we  cannot  be  too 
1* 


10 

urgent.  As  a  general  rule,  it  is  utterly  unsafe  to  buy 
land  on  the  strength  of  a  glowing  advertisement,  or  the 
representations  of  ordinary  land-agents.  There  are  most 
honorable  exceptions  to  this  rule,  of  course,  but  they  are 
few.  We  repeat,  "buy  no  land  until  you  have  seen  and 
carefully  examined  it. 

Before  giving  a  few  hints,  which  the  purchaser  will  find 
useful  in  deciding  upon  the  quality  of  land,  it  may  be 
well  to  notice  a  few  points  which  should  claim  his  atten- 
tion. In  "  The  Emigrant's  True  Guide,"  we  took  occa- 
sion to  discuss  this  at  some  length ;  but  as  that  book  may 
not  have  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  reader,  we  will  again 
briefly  refer  to  it. 

The  very  first  inquiry  should  be  concerning  the  health- 
fulness  of  the  proposed  purchase.  If  it  be  in  a  notoriously 
unhealthy  region,  utterly  refuse  to  have  anything  to  do 
with  it.  Of  what  avail  will  be  rich  land,  abundant  har- 
vests, numerous  flocks  and  herds,  if,  with  them  all,  there 
is  a  constant  liability  to  bilious  and  other  diseases,  which 
prevail  in  certain  localities  ?  A  bare  subsistence,  with 
ruddy  health,  is  far  preferable ;  and  this  the  emigrant 
will  learn  by  sad  experience,  if  he  sit  himself  down  beside 
some  sluggish  stream,  or  on  some  fever-breeding  marsh. 
See  to  it,  that  the  general  character  of  the  countuy  for 
health  is  reasonably  good,  and  that  the  streams  in  the 
neighborhood  are  clear  and  lively.  It  cannot  be  expected 
that  the  new  and  rich  regions  of  the  West  will  be  as 
healthful  as  the  poorer  and  better  settled  ones  of  the  East ; 
but  with  tolerable  caution,  a  pretty  healthy  location  may 
be  made.  At  all  events,  there  is  a  choice,  and  the  settler 
should  be  careful  to  make  it. 

It  is  also  extremely  desirable  that  the  settler  make  his 
location  as  near  a  good  market  as  possible.  There  will 
be  less  difficulty  on  this  point  than  a  stranger  in  the 
country  might  suppose.  The  numerous  rivers,  lakes, 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  11 

and  canals  which  are  to  be  found  in  the  various  places  to 
which  the  purchaser's  attention  will  be  likely  to  be  di- 
rected, render  access  to  markets  tolerably  convenient. 
In  those  portions  of  the  country  which  furnish  good  sleigh- 
ing (sledding,  as  it  is  called  in  England,)  in  the  winter, 
as  in  the  most  northern  States  and  Canada,  he  will  be 
pretty  sure  of  finding  a  tolerably  convenient  market, 
wherever  he  may  settle.  The  winter  sleighing  is  a  valu- 
able accommodation,  counterbalancing  the  inconvenience 
of  bad  summer  roads.  During  the  three  or  four  months 
in  which  the  snow  lies  on  the  ground,  the  settler  is  fur- 
nished with  a  beautiful  natural  turnpike,  better  than  any 
macadamized  road  in  the  world ;  and  this  occurs  at  a 
season  when  he  has  abundant  leisure  to  take  his  produce 
to  market,  and  to,  visit  his  friends  at  a  distance.  A  merry 
matter  is  this  sleighing,  to  say  nothing  of  its  usefulness. 
With  the  bracing  cold  of  a  settled  winter,  a  clear  blue 
sky,  and  the  face  of  the  ground  covered  with  a  mantle  of 
the  purest  white,  the  settlers  enjoy  their  heaven-made 
turnpike  with  great  zest.  The  cheerful  bells  resound 
through  forest  and  field,  and  the  once  dreaded  winter  is 
rather  desired  than  disliked.  But  to  return  from  this 
digression. 

It  Is  important,  also,  in  making  choice  of  a  location,  to 
have  an  eye  to  the  convenience  of  churches,  schools, 
medical  men,  a  post-office,  and  the  like.  All  these  things 
are  very  desirable,  and  to  secure  them  it  were  better  to 
take  up  with  a  less  quantity  of  land,  or  that  of  a  poorer 
quality.  Let  the  settler  make  particular  inquiries  on 
these  points.  It  will  not  be  difficult  to  find  locations  with 
all  these  advantages ;  but  as  land  may  be  offered  where 
they  do  not  exist,  it  is  well  that  proper  inquiries  be  made. 
The  reader  should  not  take  it  for  granted,  that  they  are 
to  be  found  in  every  place  to  which  his  attention  may  be 
directed. 


12 

The  convenience  of  a  grist-mitt  should  not  be  over- 
looked. We  have  known  of  very  great  hardships  endured 
in  some  regions,  from  the  want  of  means  of  getting  bread- 
stuffs  properly  ground.  It  will  be  well  to  make  particular 
inquiries  on  this  point  before  purchasing. 

In  short,  let  the  settler  consider  the  various  conveniences 
which  will  render  his  life,  and  that  of  his  children,  com- 
fortable J  and  in  the  outset  secure  as  many  of  them  as  he 
can.  It  is  far  better  to  buy  a  small  quantity  of  land  with 
good  advantages,  than  a  large  quantity  without  them. 
Your  children  will  need  instruction,  and  you  should  not 
place  yourself  beyond  the  reach  of  schools,  or  the  pros- 
pect of  schools  at  an  early  day  ;  the  time  of  sickness  will 
come,  and  you  will  want  medical  attendance  ;  the  hour 
of  mourning  and  serious  reflection  may  arrive,  and  the 
consolations  of  religion  from  the  lips  of  the  Christian  min- 
ister will  be  truly  welcome.  See,  therefore,  that  there  be 
a  reasonable  prospect  of  having  all  these  things  at  no 
distant  day  in  your  new  home.  It  is  hard  enough  to  bear 
the  burdens  of  the  pioneer  settler,  even  under  the  best  of 
circumstances.  Be  careful  to  get  all  the  comforts  you 
can  at  first. 

The  quality  of  wild  land  may  be  judged  of  by  the  fol- 
lowing general  rules.  * 

In  the  New-England  States,  in  the  State  of  New-York, 
the  principal  part  of  Ohio  and  Michigan,  in  Canada,  and 
indeed  throughout  the  northerly  portions  of  America,  land 
which  is  timbered  should  have  growing  upon  it  tall  and 
strong  hard  timber,  such  as  maple,  elm,  beach,  bass-wood, 
cherry,  hickory,  white-ash,  butternut,  and  the  like.  If 
the  land  on  which  any  of  these  kinds  of  timber  is  found, 
be  dry,  (as  it  usually  is,)  it  is  good.  The  trees  should,  as 
a  general  rule,  be  tall,  and  branching  only  near  the  top. 
A  large  hemlock  occasionally  among  the  timber,  is  no 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  13 

bad  sign.     Land  which  bears  the  timber,  we  have  now 
named,  or  some  kinds  of  it,  is  sure  to  be  good. 

If  the  trees  be  low  in  size,  and  scraggy,  the  soil  is  clayey 
and  cold,  and  inclined  to  be  too  wet  for  cultivation.  The 
trees  which  grow  on  wet  and  swampy  lands  are  the  oak, 
pine,  hemlock,  tamarack,  black-ash  and  cedar ;  but  the 
pine  and  hemlock  are  often  found  on  dry  soil,  and  so  is 
the  oak. 

Some  people  judge  by  the  surface  of  the  land  also.  This 
is  not  always  a  safe  criterion.  If  the  land  appears  un- 
even, rising  into  little  knolls  or  knobs,  they  reject  it,  think- 
ing that  the  knolls  are  caused  by  rocks  and  large  stones 
beneath  the  surface.  This  is  not  right.  In  Canada  and 
various  portions  of  the  States,  the  old  settlers  do  not  reject 
a  piece  of  land  because  of  its  uneven  surface.  Quite  the 
contrary ;  for  they  know  that  the  more  uneven  the  land 
appears  with  these  small  heights  and  hollows,  the  better 
the  soil  probably  is.  We  have  known  really  sagacious 
purchasers  to  take  a  small  iron  rod,  a  ramrod  for  instance, 
into  the  woods  with  them,  and  run  the  rod  into  the  knobs 
and  knolls,  to  ascertain  what  they  were  composed  of. 
This  is  a  good  plan.  The  end  of  the  rod  should  be  sharp- 
ened. By  this  means  you  can  tell  whether  the  subsoil 
be  c4ayey  or  the  reverse,  which  you  could  not  otherwise  so 
readily  determine,  as  the  top  of  all  soils  is  usually  covered 
with  the  black  mould  of  decayed  vegetable  matter. 

A  lot  of  land  should  not  be  rejected,  if  a  corner  of  it, 
even  fifteen  acres,  is  covered  with  black-ash,  pine,  or 
cedar.  For  fencing  the  cleared  fields,  black-ash  and 
cedar  are  invaluable.  For  boards  and  shingles,  the  pine 
is  of  great  value. 

The  qualify  of  prairie  land  is  so  easily  known  by  the 
eye,  and  is  so  universally  good,  that  but  few  words  need 
be  said  on  the  subject.  It  should  be  dry,  clear  land,  of  a 
deep  rich  soil,  and  as  near  as  possible  to  timber-land  ;  say 


14  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

from  one  to  three  miles  distant,  or  nearer,  if  practicable- 
It  is  of  importance  that  you  get  within  a  reasonable  dis- 
tance of  a  supply  of  timber  ;  it  is  of  much  less  import- 
ante,  however,  than  it  was  before  the  introduction  of  the 
Pise  mode  of  building  houses  and  fences,  an  account  of 
which  may  be  found  in  another  chapter. 

It  is  of  great  importance  that  the  settler  do  not  purchase 
too  much  land  ;  especially  if  he  take  it  on  credit.  On  this 
point  we  cannot  be  too  urgent.  Many  is  the  man  who 
has  been  ruined  by  not  being  careful  in  this  particular. 
Land-holders  and  land-agents  are  too  apt  to  induce  the 
purchaser  to  buy  too  freely  ;  especially  if  the  latter  make 
a  pretty  good  down-payment.  An  instance  in  point  occurs 
to  the  writer. 

A  man  once  came  into  the  land-office  of  which  the 
writer  then  had  charge,  to  "  take  up  "  a  piece  of  land,  as 
it  is  called.  He  was  considerably  advanced  in  life, 
say  past  fifty  ;  and  bore  marks  of  having  done  much  hard 
work,  and  of  having  passed  through  many  trials.  "  I 
have  come,  sir,"  said  he,  "  to  take  up  a  piece  of  land. 
Though  I  am  almost  an  old  man,  I  am  going  to  begin  life 
again.  I  am  poor,  and  have  a  large  family,  but  we  are 
all  willing  to  work." 

"  Happy,  happy  to  see  you,"  said  the  land  agent,  in 
somewhat  of  a  cheering,  earnest  way  ;  "  you  are  just  the 
kind  of  settlers  we  want.  Our  land  is  good,  and  there's 
plenty  of  it ;  and  the  more  children  you  have,  the  better 
off  you  are.  But  why  are  you  so  poor  ?  You  say  you 
are  willing  to  work." 

"  Why,  sir,"  he  replied,  "  I  have  had  a  great  deal  of 
sickness  in  my  family,"that  is  one  reason  ;  but  the  prin- 
cipal one  is,  that  1  took  up  too  much  land  when  I  made  a 
beginning.  The  landholder,  knowing  I  was  a  hearty  man, 
and  that  I  had  a  little  money  to  pay  down,  prevailed  on 
me  to  take  up  three  hundred  acres,  when  I  should  have 


15 

taken  but  sixty  or  seventy.  The  consequence  was,  that 
after  working  hard  upon  it  for  a  few  years,  clearing  some 
fifty  or  sixty  acres,  and  making  other  improvements,  I 
found  I  could  not  support  my  family,  keep  down  the  inte- 
rest of  what  was  due,  and  make  the  regular  payments  on 
the  purchase.  I  was  discouraged.  The  landholder  might 
take  away  all  I  had  whenever  he  should  choose  ;  indeed, 
I  was  literally  his  bondman.  I  felt  that  I  might  be  taken 
sick  or  die  at  any  time,  and  leave  my  family  in  distress. 
I  have,  therefore,  sold  out  my  betterments,  and  am  now 
ready  to  begin  again.37 

Here  was  a  man,  who  had  worked  hard  and  eaten  the 
bread  of  carefulness,  but  whose  ill  success  was  occasioned 
solely  by  having  taken  up  too  large  a  farm  at  the  outset. 

It  is  usually  the  custom,  for  private  landholders  to  re- 
quire one-fourth  or  one-fifth  of  the  purchase  money  down, 
and  the  balance  in  four  or  five  equal  annual  payments  j 
the  interest  on  the  amount  due  to  be  paid  every  year.  In 
the  early  history  of  a  settler,  it  will  not  be  easy  to  get 
ready  money ;  and  it  will  make  a  very  great  difference 
whether  he  has  to  pay  the  interest  on  three  hundred  acres, 
or  on  seventy.  Besides  this,  a  small  farm  well  cultivated 
is  better  than  a  large  one  poorly  tilled.  A  man  can  do 
but  about  a  given  amount  of  work,  and  he  had  better  be- 
stow all  he  can  on  a  moderate  sized  farm.  We  have  had 
the  very  best  opportunities  of  understanding  this  subject, 
and  we  earnestly  advise  the  reader  to  be  moderate  in  his 
purchase  of  land.  In  all  our  experience,  we  have  scarce- 
ly ever  found  an  individual  who  could  manage  to  pay  for 
and  clear  over  a-  hundred  acres ;  the  majority  are  not 
safe  in  contracting  for  more,  nor,  indeed,  for  so  much. 

Some  landholders  are  sufficiently  mindful  of  the  inter- 
ests  of  their  settlers,  to  reserve  small  pieces  of  land,  thirty 
to  fifty  acres  perhaps,  in  the  rear  or  by  the  side  of  the 
first  purchase ;  and,  after  a  little  time,  both  parties  can 


16 

see  whether  it  is  prudent  to  enlarge  the  farm.  By  this 
means  the  settler  is  not  encumbered  with  too  much  land, 
nor  disheartened  by  large  interest-money.  It  is  true, 
that  the  landholder's  interest  account  is  not  so  large  as  it 
otherwise  might  be  ;  but  in  the  first  stages  of  a  settlement, 
it  is  of  far  greater  importance  to  have  the  settlers  succeed, 
than  it  is  to  have  the  land-owner's  interest  account  large. 
The  sooner  the  settlers  get  deeds  of  their  land,  the  better 
for  all  parties. 

Having  entered  into  contract  for  such  a  quantity  of 
land  as  you  have  reason  to  believe  you  can  pay  for,  have 
it  surveyed.  Do  not  omit  this.  You  will  thus  avoid  any 
trouble  that  might  otherwise  occur. 

If  your  land  be  timbered,  in  the  State  of  New- York  or 
Pennsylvania,  Maine,  Ohio,  some  parts  of  Michigan,  and 
so  forth,  the  following  articles  will  be  required  to  do  jus- 
tice to  your  clearing.  The  estimate  is  made  for  Jefferson 
county,  in  the  State  of  New-York,  and  will  vary  some- 
what, though  not  very  materially,  in  other  places. 

ARTICLES  NECESSARY  FOR  A  NEW  SETTLER. 

One  span  of  horses,  say $100  00 

One  yoke  of  oxen 50  00 

One  double  wagon 50  00 

One  superior  plough '. 10  00 

One  drag 5  00 

One  spade,  shovel,  and  hoe 2  50 

Two  log  chains 8  00 

One  cradle,  scythe,  and  snath 7  00 

One  axe 2  00 

Two  augers — half-indj  and  inch » 1  00 

One  saw ™. 1  00 

Two  chisels , 75 

Rake  and  pitchfork 1  00 

One  hammer  and  10  Ibs.  of  nails 1  25 

One  cow 15  00 


$254  50 


The  average  price  of  clearing  land  in  t: 
may  be  set  down  at  about  ten  dollars  the 
the  common  Virginia  fence,  which  is  a  \ 
for  a  new  country.     Persons  can  alway 
will  contract  at  this  price. 

The  next  thing  to  be   done,  is  to  build  son. 
dwelling.     The  log  shanty  is  usually  the  fii 
builds.     It  is  an  exceedingly  comfortable  dw 
in  summer  and  warm   in   winter ;  and  if  w 
every  year,  and  clambering  vines  made  to  r 
is  a  very  pretty  one.     It  is  speedily  built,  a. 
sary,  the  settler  can  build  it  all  himself.     In 
tion  of  this  book,  full   instructions  will  be 
manner  of  building  shanties,  log-houses, 
barns,  fences,  and  the  like.     By  turning  to 
contents,  the  reader  will  find  where  to 
formation. 

Having  got  up  a  shanty  or  a  log-house,  the  next  step 
will  be  that  of  clearing.  The  emigrant  will  now  be 
disheartened,  perhaps.  It  will  seem  a  long  and  dreary 
work  to  lay  the  giant  forest  low,  and  make  of  the  wild 
land,  fruitful  fields.  But  as  he  proceeds,  he  will  find  it 
less  difficult  than  he  had  supposed.  After  the  lapse  of 
two  or  three  years,  order  will  begin  to  reign,  and  he  will 
be  more  than  satisfied. 

In  CLEARING,  the  first  thing  is  to  lay  out  in  as  regular 
a  shape  as  possible,  the  land  designed  to  be  cleared  the 
first  season.  A  portion  of  this,  say  one  or  two  acres, 
should  now  be  underbrushed,  that  is,  the  small  growth  of 
wood  and  bushes  all  cut  up.  If  mere  are  any  old  logs 
or  trees  lying  on  the  piece  to  be  cleared,  cut  them  up  in- 
to fifteen-feet  lengths.  Having  thus  made  clean  work  of 
the  underwood,  go  to  work,  and  cut  down  all  the  trees, 
clean  as  you  go,  with  the  exception  of  the  rail-timber 
which  may  be  growing  on  it,  such  as  black  and  white- 


•  'HE  FARMER'S  AND 

such  other  woods  as  the  country  fur- 
//  this  should  be  saved,  and  cut  down 
of. 

rees  are  usually  cut  down  at  that  dis- 

jnd  which  is  most  convenient  for  the 

3  axe — say  about  breast-high. 

the  trees,  the  next  step  is  to  cut  them 

ize  convenient  to  be  drawn  into  piles  for 

se   logs  should   be  about  fifteen  feet  in 

^  paces.     Go  on  with  this  till  all  the  trees 

wn  are  chopped  into  logs.* 

*  eye  around,  and  see  where  the  heaviest 

•ese   be  in   tolerably  convenient   spots, 

centres   of  different  piles.     Now,  with 

jr- chains,  draw  the   logs  to  these  piles. 

>gging.     Now    pile    up   the  brush   into 

burning.     The  log-heaps  may  be  made 

c    a  dry  time  ;  if  not,  they   must  be  large. 

No  particular  instructions  can  be  given  on  this  po'.nt ;  the 

settler  must  be  guided  by  his  own  judgment,  and  by  the 

example  of  others.     The  logs  and  brush  thus  piled,  take 

occasion  of  the  first  dry  time  to  set  fire  to  them.     They 

will  soon  consume,  if  the    weather    be  at   all  favorable. 

The  appearance  of  a  new  country  by  night,  when  this  is 

going  on,  is  exceedingly  picturesque  and  beautiful.    The 

fires  light  up  the  surrounding  forest  with  great -brilliancy  ; 

and  one   fancies  that  he  is  walking  amid  the  aisles  of 

*  The  above  is  the  common  way  followed  in  chopping.  There  is  another,  and 
that  is  in  "  windrows,"  which  is,  by  chopping  all  the  trees  down,  so  as  the  tops  are 
thrown  together,  in  p.  row  or  strip,  the  trees  being  so  chopped  down,  as  to  cause 
the  brush  to  lie  together,  in  a  row,  which  not  being  cut,  (unless  some  high  branch- 
es, which  lie  not  close)  saves  trouble  in  cutting  the  branches  off  and  pi'ing  them. 
This  plan  is  not  often  followed,  however.  There  is  another  way  also,  and  that  is 
to  make  jam  heaps,  by  throwing  as  many  of  the  tops  of  the  trees  together  as  pos- 
sible, making  thus  a  large  brush-heap.  This  is  not  a  bad  plan,  if  the  season  is  a 
dry  one,  as  these  heaps  burn  off  many  of  the  upper  and  thick  branches  or  limbs  of 
the  trees,  which  would  otherwise  need  to  be  cut  by  the  axe,  and  logged  or  hauled 
together. 


some  gorgeous,  though  unearthly  temple  the 

forest  leaves  there  be  the  drops  of  a  passr  or 

of  the  dew,  they  glitter  in  the  brilliant  li^  ng 

diamonds. 

And  even  by  day  these  clearings  have  u,  e 

and  interesting  appearance.     When  the  air  ,  and 

the  blue  column  of  smoke  rises  like  a  tall  fairy  shaft,  up 
to  the  heavens,  contrasting  with  their  deeper  blue  ;  it 
seems  as  if  it  were  a  monument  of  praise  to  the  noble  pio- 
neers who  are  thus  willing  to  bear  the  heat  and  burden 
of  the  day.  Though  it  be  a  digression  from  the  practical 
work  we  have  in  hand,  and  the  critic  may  deem  it  an 
offence  against  good  taste,  we  must  be  allowed  to  say, 
that  in  the  rude  forest  life  of  which  we  treat,  there  is 
much  of  real  romance.  Often  have  we  enjoyed  it,  with 
a  joy  not  equalled  by  that  experienced  in  other  scenes. 
Look  at  the  forester,  on  the  Sabbath,  if  you  please.  He 
has  well  kept  the  command,  "  six  days  shall  thou  labor" 
and  he  rises  to  enjoy  the  day  of  rest,  deeming  it  indeed  a 
blessing.  The  church-going  bell  is  not  heard  within  his 
wild  domain,  nor  organ,  nor  anthem,  nor  choir.  But 
there  is  music  in  the  deep  silence.  He  wanders  a  little 
way  from  his  dwelling,  and  sits  him  down  beneath  the 
verdant  canopy  of  leaves.  Up  above  all,  through  the 
fretted  roof  of  branches,  he  sees  the  deep  blue  of  the 
heaven  of  worlds,  emblem  of  the  divine  purity.  He 
hears  a  sound — 'tis  but  the  clear  trill  of  the  Phebe-bird, 
perhaps,  or  the  rich  love-note  of  the  robin.  The  leaves 
tremble  in  the  light  breeze,  with  a  voice  sweeter  and 
softer  than  the  tones  of  the  wind-harp  : 

"  Unearthly  minstrelsy  !  then  only  heard, 
When  the  soul  seeks  to  hear ;  when  all  is  hushed, 
And  the  heart  listens." 

The  forester  is,  indeed,  in  a  temple  not  made  with 
hands,  and  his  worship  may  be  paid  to  Him  who  seeth 
in  secret,  and  rewardeth  openly. 


IE  FARMER'S  AND 

mr  soberer  work. 

tearing  by  slashing,  as  it  is  termed,  is 
?  y  all  means  avoid  it.     Girdling  trees, 

ay  of  themselves,  and  after  they  have 
i  i,  is  another  poor  way  of  clearing.    It 

is  A  ever,  in  many  places,  and   has  its  advo- 

cates. 

Having  burnt  the  logs  and  brush  on  the  land,  the  ashes 
that  remain  should  be  made  into  "  Black  Salts,"  (if  there 
be  a  good  quantity.)  By  turning  to  the  article  entitled 
"Black  Salts"  the  reader  will  learn  the  process.  An 
acre  of  well  timbered  land  will  furnish  from  seventy-five 
to  one  hundred  and  fifty  bushels  of  ashes.  Every  four 
hundred  bushels  of  ashes  will  make  a  ton  of  potash  or 
pearlash. 

The  land  should  now  be  fenced  into  ten-acre  lots,  with 
a  fence  seven  rails  in  height.  The  article,  "Fences," 
in  this  book,  will  give  the  necessary  information  on  this 
point. 

When  the  land  is  fenced,  it  is  ready  for  sowing.  In 
September,  sow  one  and  a  quarter  (or  half)  bushels  of 
wheat  to  the  acre.  "  Drag  "  it  in  with  the  harrow,  and 
cross-drag  it,  so  as  to  be  sure  that  it  is  well  covered.  A 
good  workman  will  take  a  peck-axe,  and  peck  the  land 
around  the  stumps,  and  see  that  it  is  thoroughly  seeded. 
The  land  is  now  in  a  fair  way  to  yield  a  good  crop  the  next 
season.  Early  in  the  following  spring,  sow  on  the  same 
land,  in  among  the  wheat,  four  quarts  of  grass  seed,  either 
herds'-grass  or  timothy,  to  the  acre.  After  the  wheat  is 
harvested,  this  grass  will  become  meadow,  in  which  state 
it  should  lie  till  the  roots  of  the  stumps  shall  have  rotted, 
so  as  to  enable  you  to  plough  the  land,  which  will  be  in 
about  five  years. 

We  have  thus  traced  the  process  of  clearing,  sowing, 
and  grass-seeding  a  piece  of  land.  The  first  spring  and 


21 

summer  it  is  cleared  ;  in  the  fall  wheat  k  ;  the 

next  spring  it  is  put  into  grass,  and  the  set  -3r  a 

crop  of  wheat  is  taken  from  it,  leaving  it  * 

This  process  is  continued  from  year  to  -,e 

whole  farm  is  brought  under  cultivation. 

In  a  year  or  two  the  stumps  that  remain  si,  .  oe  set 
fire  to,  in  a  dry  time  in  autumn,  to  hasten  their  decay. 
If  any  young  twigs  shoot  out  from  them,  cut  them  off  at 
once.  Keep  everything  tidy;  the  fences  in  good  order, 
and  the  greensward  from  being  too  much  trampled  on, 
either  by  man  or  beast. 

Mr.  Widder,  the  gentlemanly  commissioner  of  the  Ca- 
nada Company,  in  Toronto,  has  politely  furnished  us  with 
the  following  estimate  of  the  first  three  years  outlay  and 
income  of  a  settler  in  Canada  West.  It  will  be  valuable 
for  those  removing  to  that  beautiful  province : 

Cost  of  clearing  10  acres  of  heavy  timbered  land,  in  the  usual  Ca- 
nadian fashion,  with  an  estimate  of  the  crops  to  be  produced  therefrom 
during  the  first  three  years  after  clearing : 

FIRST  YEAR. 

DR. 

£    s.    d.    £    8.   d. 

Chopping,  clearing,  and  fencing  10  acres,  so  as 

to  leave  it  fit  for  the  drag,  at  £4  per  acre 40  0  0 

Seed,  1£  bushels  wheat  to  the  acre,  say  15  bush- 
els, at  5s 3  15  0 

Sowing  and  dragging,  at  5s.  per  acre 2  10  0 

Harvesting,  at  7s.  6d.  per  acre 3  15  0 

The  value  of  the  straw,  tailing,  wheat  hulls,  etc. 
on  the  farm,  are  supposed  to  be  equal  to  the 
threshing  and  cartage  to  the  barn. 

To  timothy  and  clover  seed,  at  2s.  6d.  per  acre,  350 

*    CR. 

By  20  bushels  wheat  per  acre — 260  bushels,  at 
3s.  9d 37  10  0 


SECOND  YEAR. 

DR. 

£  s.  d.    £  s.  d. 
.ng  off  hay,  at  7s.  6d.  per 
3  15  0 

CR. 
By  1$  .  acre  of  hay,  at  6  dollars  per  ton...     22  10  0 

THIRD    YEAR. 
DR. 

To  mowing  and  taking  off  the  hay,  at  7s.  6d.  per 

acre 3  15  0 

CR. 
By  1£  ton  per  acre  of  hay,  at  6  dollars  per  ton,    22  10  0 


82  10  0  60  15  0 
Balance  in  clear  profit 21  15  0 


JB82  10  0  82  10  0 


CHAPTER    II. 

PRAIRIE     FARMING. 

IN  the  previous  chapter,  we  have  traced,  as  best  we 
could,  the  earlier  stages  of  a  settler  on  the  timbered  lands 
of  the  Northern  States  and  Canada.  Let  us  now  turn  our 
attention  to  prairie  farming,  in  its  beginning,  and  in  a 
small  way. 

For  much  of  the  material  of  which  this  chapter  is  com- 
posed, we  are  indebted  to  that  most  capital  writer,  SOLON 
ROBINSON,  of  Indiana.  Our  own  observations  had  not 
been  much  directed  to  prairie  lands,  and  prairie  modes  of 
farming ;  but  the  great  experience  and  really  able  pen 
of  Mr.  Robinson,  have  abundantly  supplied  what  we 
lacked. 

We  shall  use  much  of  Mr.  Robinson's  language  for  a 
few  pages. 

It  will  be  observed,  that  the  advice  in  this  chapter  is 
intended  for  the  emigrant  of  very  moderate  means.  Those 
of  larger  means  will  find  valuable  hints  in  other  portions 
of  this  book.  By  turning  to  the  article  entitled  "Prairie 
Miscellany,"  they  may  be  found. 

Such  articles  as  you  wish  to  have  in  your  new  home, 
you  will  pack  up  in  boxes  or  barrels,  (the  latter  the  best,) 
strongly  hooped  and  plainly  directed,  and  ship  to  the 
nearest  port  of  your  intended  location.  The  best  month 


24 

to  start  is  June.  Such  articles  of  furniture  as  chairs 
tables,  bedsteads,  bureaus,  stoves,  and  other  bulky  arti- 
cles, you  had  better  sell  than  ship — particularly  if  your 
new  home  will  be  in  the  country  within  reach  of  water- 
carriage  ;  for  at  most  lake  towns,  such  articles  can  be 
bought  at  reasonable  prices.  So  can  ploughs,  at  prices 
from  $6  to  $15 — wagons,  $60  to  $80 — double  harness, 
$14  to  $20 — log-chains,  10  to  12  cts.  a  pound — scythe 
and  snath,  $1  50 — rakes,  18  cts. — pitchforks,  50  to  75  cts. 
— shovels  and  spades,  75  cts.  to  $1  50 — axes,  $1  00  to 
$1  50 — hoes,  37  to  75  cts. ;  and  other  farming  tools  in 
proportion. 

The  emigrant  should  not  pay  freight  on  horses  and 
cattle,  or  upon  hogs  and  sheep ;  for  his  team  he  can  buy 
in  the  West  cheaper  than  he  can  at  the  East,  and  im- 
proved stock  he  does  not  want  to  begin  with.  Beds  and 
bedding  he  should  never  sell,  and  he  may  as  well  take 
an  extra  stock  of  clothing  of  all  kinds,  except  "  finery ;" 
a  snug  little  bookcase  well  filled  ;  together  with  "  Town's 
Spelling  Book,"  and  "  Webster's  Dictionary  ;"  a  slate  for 
each  of  the  children,  and  a  receipt  for  the  subscription  of 
at  least  two  agricultural  and  miscellaneous  papers  for 
two  years  ;*  and  thus  equipped,  he  will  be  prepared  to 
begin  life  in  the  West. 

Having  arrived,  we  will  suppose  you  possessed  of  your 
team,  and  a  few  of  the  most  necessary  farming  tools, 
household  furniture,  and  just  money  enough  "  to  keep  the 
wolf  away  from  the  door ;"  with  a  part  of  this  you  must 
purchase  a  cow  and  some  provisions  to  begin  with,  and  of 
course  rent  an  improved  place  for  a  year  or  two,  which 
you  can  do  for  a  third  of  the  crop,  or  for  about  one  dollar 
an  acre  for  the  tillable  land.  After  putting  in  a  crop  of 
wheat  the  first  fall,  you  will  find  employment  for  your- 

*  The  "New  World,"  of  court*. 


25 

self  and  team  during  the  winter.  And  upon  the  prairie 
soil,  you  would  soon -grow  rich  raising  wheat,  even  at 
50  cts.  a  bushel,  if  it  were  a  certain  crop ;  but  as  we  are 
intending  to  write  truth,  we  must  say  that  we  do  not  think 
it  is.  It  is  liable  to  winter-kill  by  heaving,  and  to  rust ; 
and  this  year,  (1844,)  some  early  wheat  is  injured  by  the 
frost  of  May  21st,  and  the  Hessian  fly  has  made  its  ap- 
pearance in  the  West,  besides  another  danger  in  the  shape 
of  the  "  army  worm."  Spring  wheat,  buckwheat,  oats, 
barley,  potatoes,  turnips,  peas,  grass,  and  garden  vege- 
tables generally,  may  be  counted  upon  as  certain  and 
good  crops.  Cattle  and  sheep  fatten  and  winter  well 
upon  prairie  hay,  and  cows  are  profitable  for  butter  and 
cheese.  The  prices  of  good  common  farm  horses,  say  in 
Illinois  and  Indiana,  is  about  $50  to  $60  ;  four-year-old 
working  oxen.  $35  a  yoke  ;  cows,  $8  to  $12  ;  yearlings, 
$3  to  $4  ;  two-year-old,  $6  to  $7  ;  sheep,  $1  to  $1  25 ; 
hogs  plenty  and  cheap. 

Again,  we  will  suppose  you  arrive  with  $200,  exclusive 
of  the  other  necessaries  above  mentioned.  A  small  capi- 
tal, you  say,  with  which  to  buy  a  new  farm,  and  com- 
mence  farming  in  a  new  country.  True ;  but  many  a 
man  in  the  West  is  now  comparatively  rich,  who  com- 
menced with  a  less  sum.  All  that  is  wanted  is  courage 
and  industry — some  would  say  luck,  but  luck  almost 
always  follows  industry.  Well,  you  wish  to  know  how 
to  begin  in  this  small  way.  We  will  tell  you.  United 
States  public  land  is  $1  25  an  acre,  and  thousands  of 
acres  are  subject  to  entry  upon  all  the  western  prairies,  of  a 
most  excellent  soil.  You  arrive  the  first  of  July,  and  are 
determined  to  become  an  owner  of  the  land  you  cultivate. 
You  find  a  region  of  country,  the  appearance  of  which 
suits  you.  First  get  your  family  temporarily  into  some 
vacant  house,  and  then  try  to  buy  a  small  improved  place 


26  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

within  your  means,  which  you  can  often  do,  as  all  new 
countries  are  first  improved  by  an.  uneasy,  roving  class, 
ever  ready  to  "  sell  out  "  and  go  to  some  other  part  of  the 
country,  "  a  little  farther  west/'  or  perhaps  "  begin  a  new 
place  "  in  the  same  neighborhood,  and  which  in  turn  will 
be  again  for  sale.  In  fact,  this  is  the  common  way  of 
settling  a  new  country.  So  you  need  not  be  surprised  to 
find  the  whole  population  ready  to  sell  their  new  home 
before  a  long  residence  attaches  them  to  it.  The  "  sell- 
ing out  fever  "  is  a  mania,  but  a  very  harmless  one;  you 
need  not  fear  it.  But  if  you  cannot  buy  an  old  place, 
then  you  must  make  a  new  one.  "  What !"  you  exclaim, 
"  buy  land,  build  a  house,  fence  and  plough  a  farm,  with 
$200  ?  Pray,  tell  me  how."  We  will. 

First,  then,  you  cannot  buy  less  than  forty  acres  of 
public  land.  Let  this  be  dry,  clean  prairie,  which  will 
be  perhaps  from  one  to  three  miles  from  timber.  This 
will  cost  $50,  besides  a  little  expense  of  going  to  the  land- 
office,  which  in  some  districts  may  be  a  hundred  miles. 
Now,  you  must  have  some  timber  land.  The  price  of 
this  will  vary  in  different  sections  of  the  country,  it  being 
in  the  hands  of  private  individuals  generally ;  but  where 
timber  is  plenty  enough  to  make  it  advisable  to  settle,  it 
can  be  bought  for  $5  an  acre.  Five  acres  of  good  white 
oak  timber,  will  be  sufficient  for  the  forty  acres  of  prairie, 
and  will  take  up  $25  more  of  the  capital. 

Now  for  a  house.  Forty  logs,  eighteen  feet  long,  ten 
inches  diameter,  slightly  hewed  on  two  sides,  notched  or 
hewed  together  at  the  corners,  will  form  the  walls. 
Seven  smaller  sticks,  hewed  on  one  side,  will  make  the 
sleepers  of  the  floor,  and  the  same  number  for  the  joists 
of  the  chamber  floor ;  as  ten  logs  high  will  allow  of  having 
a  low  chamber  that  will  answer  for  beds.  The  rafters 
can  be  made  of  straight  rails,  and  may  be  boarded  and 


THE    EMIGRANT^    HAND-BOOK.  27 

shingled,  or,  with  less  expense,  have  smaller  rails  nailed 
on  for  ribs,  and  covered  with  split  clap-boards  or  strakes, 
three  feet  long  and  six  inches  wide :  four  hundred  will 
make  the  roof,  and  they  are  worth,  if  bought,  not  over 
$2  50.  The  gable-end  may  be  studded  and  sided  up 
with  logs — the  boarding  is  preferable.  A  front  and  back 
door,  and  two  twelve  light  8x10  glass  windows,  are  to  be 
cut  out  of  the  logs,  and  a  space  for  the  chimney,  the 
whole  of  which  will  be  built  on  the  outside  to  save  room. 
The  ends  of  the  logs,  when  cut  off,  are  secured  in  their 
places  by  a  board  or  piece  of  split  stuff,  pinned  or  nailed 
on. 

If  the  country  is  new,  and  destitute  of  brick  or  stone  for 
a  chimney,  yet  one  must  be  built.  This  is  done  by  first 
making  a  rough  frame  of  split  stuff,  on  the  outside  of  the 
fire-place,  which  is  to  remain  ;  and  on  the  inside  a  tempo- 
rary frame  of  boards  is  put  up,  just  the  size  of  the  contem- 
plated fire-place.  Then  this  space  is  rammed  full  of 
slightly  moistened  clay,  and  a  wooden  mantle  laid  across, 
and  the  funnel  of  the  chimney  built  out  with  sticks  and 
clay ;  then  the  inside  boarding  of  the  fire-place  is  taken 
out,  and  the  hearth  made  of  pounded  clay,  and  it  is  ready 
for  use,  and  will, last  many  years. 

If  in  a  country  of  saw-mills,  you  will  procure  boards 
for  the  floors  and  doors,  otherwise  they  must  be  made  of 
split  stuff. 

The  spaces  between  the  logs  are  filled  with  "  chink- 
ing,"  that  is,  pieces  of  rails,  and  blocks,  and  split  stuff, 
and  then  the  whole  well  "  daubed  "  with  clay  mortar  in 
all  the  cracks,  outside  and  in.  A  small  shed  should  be 
built  over  the  back-door,  to  keep  the  pots  and  kettles  dry. 
This  house  can  be  built,  finished,  and  ready  to  move  into, 
for  the  following  expense  : 


28  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

Cutting,  hewing,  and  hauling  timber 4  days' work. 

Raising,  (mostly  done  by  neighbors)  say 1  do. 

Putting  on  roof  and  gable-ends 2  do. 

Cutting  out  doors,  windows,  and  place  for  fire-place, 

and  casing  doors  and  windows,  and  making  doors....  4  do. 

Laying  floors  and  making  a  ladder  to  chamber 3  do. 

Chinking  and  daubing 3  do. 

Building  chimney 3  do. 

In  all 20  days. 

Now,  the  cash  out  will  be,  for  ten  days'  work  hired $5 

1000  ft.  of  lumber  for  floors,  etc.. '. 10 

20  Ibs.  of  nails 1 

30  lights  sash  and  glass,  (1  six  light  for  chamber) 1.  87 

2  pair  butts  and  screws,  (use  wooden  latches) 25 

400  split  clapboards  for  the  roof. 2  50 

Total $20  62 

But  we  will  add  for  contingencies,  which  will  make  even  money,    4  38 


Making , $25  00 

Some  of  the  packing-boxes,  in  which  come  your  things, 
with  the  lid  hinged  with  bits  of  leather,  and  some  shelves 
put  in,  will  make  some  good  closets  for  a  corner  of  the 
"  new  house  " — and  if  you  have  a  jack-plane  and  augers, 
which  every  emigrant  should  have,  you  can  make  some 
coarse  bedsteads,  upon  which  you  will  sleep  more  soundly, 
and  a  table  or  two,  upon  which  you  will  eat  with  a  better 
appetite,  than  those  do  who  eat  from  a  table  that  costs  more 
than  yours,  house  and  all. 

We  have  allowed  ten  days  after  you  have  fixed  upon 
your  location,  to  build  your  house  and  move  into  it ;  but 
it  would  be  better  to  have  more  hands,  and  complete  it  in 
less  time.  In  the  meantime,  if  not  too  late  in  the  season 
(which  should  not  be  later  at  any  rate  than  the  middle  of 
August.)  you  may  hire  twenty  acres  of  prairie  broken  u; 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  29 

#hich  will  cost  from  $1  50  to  $2  an  acre,  owing  to  the 
lifferent  prices  of  labor  in  different  parts  of  the  country, 
rather  than  to  a  difference  in  the  quality  of  the  breaking ; 
though  the  best  of  it  cannot  be  done  to  good  advantage  with 
less  than  three  stout  yoke  of  oxen,  and  generally  four  yoke 
are  used — so  that  it  is  generally  better  for  the  poor  set- 
tler to  hiie  his  breaking  done  by  the  acre,  than  to  attempt 
it  with  an  inefficient  team.  The  depth  of  breaking  varies 
from  two  to  eight  inches ;  and  it  is  still  a  mooted  point 
what  depth  is  the  oest — our  own  opinion  is  four  inches. 

The  breaking  of  this  twenty  acres,  put  down  at  830 — 
and  fifteen  bushels  of  wheat  with  which  to  sow  ten  acres, 
at  50  cents  a  bushel,  $7  50.  This  will  take  about  a 
week  to  put  in  as  it  should  be,  for  the  sod  is  very  hard, 
and  needs  a  great  deal  of  harrowing ;  and  as  you  have 
been  on  the  prairie  so  short  a  time,  that  you  have  not 
been  able  to  get  a  harrow  of  your  own,  we  will  excuse 
you  for  borrowing  one-— though  an  eternal  borrower  is 
but  little  better  than  a  thief  in  a  neighborhood. 

Having  sowed  the  wheat,  you  have  necessarily  to  trust 
it  to  Providence,  unfenced,  as  you  cannot  fence  it  at  pres- 
ent, and  we  have  known  many  a  first  rate  crop  raised  in 
the  same  way,  even  in  thick  settled  neighborhoods. 

Your  next  step  is  to  cut  a  good  supply  of  hay  for  the 
cow  and  team  for  a  five  months'  winter.  And  then  a  tem- 
porary stable  you  can  build  in  this  manner:  Lay  up  a  pen 
of  rails  double,  that  is,  two  courses  all  round,  except  a 
door-way  at  one  corner,  where  the  ends  of  the  rails  are 
secured  in  their  places  by  short  cress  ties,  and  fill  in  the 
space  between  the  two  courses  of  rails — which  should  be 
at  least  a  foot — with  wet  hay,  and  dirt,  and  sods,  and  trash, 
that  will  make  a  perfect  tight,  warm  wall;  and  over  the 
top  lay  poles,  and  build  a  small  stack  of  hay  of  the  coarsest 
grass,  which  will  shed  rain  and  serve  you  for  a  good  sta- 


30  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

blc  a  couple  of  years.  There  should,  however,  be  a  little 
ditch  due  around  the  outside  to  take  off  the  water  ;  the  dirt 
being  thrown  inside  will  raise  the  ground,  so  as  always  to 
keep  a  dry  and  better  floor  than  a  plank  one. 

All  this,  you  see,  is  done  with  your  own  labor,  or  by 
exchanging  a  day  or  two  of  work  with  a  neighbor. 

You  will,  of  course,  extend  the  size  or  number  of  the 
pens  to  suit  the  number  of  animals  to  be  stabled,  and  also 
an  extra  room  to  hold  the  harness,  grain,  tools,  etc.  etc. 
You  will  see  the  necessity,  also,  of  putting  up  as  soon 
as  possible,  a  small  room  adjoin-ing  the  house,  which  may 
be  made  of  straight  rails  and  covered  with  strakes  ;  all  of 
which  can  be  done  with  three  days'  work,  and  will  serve 
for  a  very  good  store-room  for  flour,  meal,  meat,  potatoes, 
etc.,  except  the  latter,  which  must  be  holed  up  for  winter  ; 
a  few  bushels,  however,  can  be  kept  under  the  floor  next 
the  hearth,  for  daily  use  during  cold  weather,  and  in  some 
winters  they  will  keep  in  a  bag  in  the  same  room  where 

you  live. 

We  have  now  brought  you,  step  by  step,  into  winter- 
quarters.     You  will  observe  that  we  have  used  up  $137  50 
of  your  $200  cash  capital,  and  as  it  is  desirable  that  you 
keep  entirely  free  of  debt,  we  will  leave  the  balance  for 
your  support  until  your  land  produces  something  for  you, 
and  right  well  must  you  husband  it.     Perhaps  you  had 
better  give  the  purse  to  your  wife,  for  if  she  is  the  right 
sort  of  a  woman,  she  will  housewife  it  better  than  you 
will  husband  it— and   above  all  things,  don't  let  a  soul 
know  how  much  money  you  have  got ;  and  as  you  pay 
cash  for  everything  you  buy,  people  will  imagine  that  you 
have  an  abundance,  and  will  practice  upon  the  principle 
that  to  him  that  has,  more  shall  be  given,  and  from  him 
that   has   not,  or   but   little,  that   little   shall   be  taken 
away. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  31 

You  will  now  proceed  to  fence  the  twenty  acres  you 
have  broken  up.  Counting  two  panels  of  ten-feet  rails 
to  the  rod,  which  is  hardly  crooked  enough,  but  will  an- 
swer, it  will  take  four  thousand  eight  hundred — say  five 
thousand  rails  and  stakes ;  and  an  addition  of  sixteen 
hundred  more  will  fence  the  whole  forty  acres,  making 
six  thousand  four  hundred  ;  and  about  six  hundred  more 
for  the  necessary  yards  around  the  house  and  stable,  ma- 
king seven  thousand  in  all — which  if  you  will  get  out  in 
the  course  of  the  winter,  and  get  up  a  good  supply  of 
wood,  besides  your  other  necessary  work,  you  may  be 
set  down  for  an  industrious  man.  But  by  exchanging 
your  team  work  for  manual  labor,  you  can  accomplish 
it,  so  that  the  spring  finds  you  in  possession  of  forty 
acres  of  prairie  land,  well  fenced,  ten  of  it  in  wheat  and 
ten  ready  for  a  spring  crop,  a  comfortable  dwelling,  and 
stable  and  yards,  etc.  Now  let  us  proceed.  It  is  possi- 
ble your  wheat  is  winter  killed — then  sow  the  whole  with 
spring  wheat,  and  harrow  it  in  as  early  as  possible — but 
if  not  killed,  thon  sow  two  acres  of  the  other  ten,  in 
spring  wheat ;  seven  in  oats,  and  the  other  acre  for 
a  "truck  patch," — the  spot  intended  for  a  garden,  being 
planted  in  potatoes  this  year,  as  best  calculated  to  mellow 
the  ground. 

Previous  to  the  tenth  of  June,  get  two  more  acres  broke 
up  and  sow  it  in  buckwheat;  and  if  you  find  yourself 
able,  get  eight  acres  more  broken  up  for  wheat  this  year, 
not  more.  Do  not  undertake  too  much,  remember  that ;  but 
keep  doing,  and  in  time  you  will  accomplish  wonders. 

This  fall  you  will  be  able  to  plough  the  old  ground 
for  a  spring  crop  of  wheat,  oats  and  corn.  Put  all  the 
manure  on  the  garden  spot.  Cut  more  hay,  and  get  a 
few  calves,  and  half  a-dozen  sheep,  and  in  time  you  will 
have  a  large  stock,  and  a  large  farm,  and  build  a  new 


32  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

house,  and  be  very  glad  to  have  us  call  in  some  winter 
evening,  and  talk  over  all  these  scenes  of  the  new  set- 
tlement on  the  Western  prairie. 

In  the  foregoing  remarks,  we  have  spoken  altogether 
of  the  use  of  a  horse-team,  while,  at  the  same  time,  we 
would  recommend  to  the  emigrants  who  arrive  without 
a  team,  to  buy  oxen  in  preference,  as  being  the  cheapest 
at  first  cost,  and  altogether  the  most  economical,  for  the 
man  of  small  means.  So,  also,  we  would  recommend, 
if  you  go  on  with  a  horse-team,  and  little  money,  that 
the  horses  be  sold,  and  a  yoke  or  two  of  oxen  furnished. 
The  average  price  we  have  previously  stated.  You  see 
that  we  do  not  recommend  much  Indian  corn  for  the  first 
crop,  because  it  is  difficult  planting — that  being  done  by 
cutting  a  hole  through  the  sod,  and  it  admitting  of  little  or 
no  after  culture,  the  crop  is  light,  seldom  reaching  twenty 
bushels  to  the  acre — (in  Indiana.)  Neither  is  it  profitable 
to  sow  grass  seed,  until  after  the  sod  is  well  rotted. 

We  have  now  only  spoken  of  a  cheap  log-cabin  and 
the  cost.  Estimates  of  the  cost  of  other  houses  are  else- 
where given. 

The  wealthy  class  of  emigrants  will  always  find 
plenty  of  improved  farms  for  sale,  cheaper  than  they  can 
make  the  improvements.  We  have  given  the  reason, 
the  restless  disposition  of  all  pioneers  in  a  new  country. 
And  this  restless  disposition  is  not  altogether  acquired 
here.  The  emigrants  bring  it  with  them ;  and  when  they 
arrive  in  a  really  good  country,  they  are  not  satisfied  to 
settle  down,  lest  there  might  be  a  better  place  a  little  far- 
ther toward  the  setting  sun  ;  and  like  that,  they  are  ever 
rolling  westward.  The  Pacific  Ocean  will  perhaps  prove 
a  barrier — nothing  short  of  it :  for  it  is  already  proven, 
that  the  great  wilderness  and  prairies  between  this  and 
that,  are  insufficient  to  stop  the  onward  rolling  wave. 


33 

In  the  foregoing  estimate  we  have  omitted  the  cost  of  a 
well,  which  is  one  of  the  most  important  items  in  the  com- 
fort of  a  family.  The  average  depth  of  wells  on  the 
prairies  is  about  twenty-five  feet ;  and  the  cost  may  be 
set  down,  for  one  properly  bricked  up  and  curbed,  at 
about  one  dollar  the  foot.  Some  persons  use  the  water 
from  streams  and  ponds,  but  it  is  not  a  good  plan.  The 
sooner  the  settler  gets  a  well  the  better.  Ram-water,  per- 
fectly filtered,  is  healthy  and  agreeable. 
3* 


CHAPTER    III.  . 

ON    THE    GENERAL    MANAGEMENT    OF    A    FARM. 

THE  following  article  from  the  pen  of  a  distinguished 
farmer  of  central  New- York,  is  admirably  calculated  fof 
the  study  of  a  farmer  of  moderate  means.  It  is  written 
in  a  simple,  clear  style,  and  may  be  depended  on  for  its 
accuracy.  We  copy  it  from  the  published  transactions  of 
the  New- York  State  Agricultural  Society  for  1843. 

In  writing  on  this  subject,  we  shall  divide  it  in  the  fol- 
lowing order : 

Firstly — What  proportion  of  the  farm  it  is  proper  to 
preserve  uncleared  of  wood. 

Secondly — The  proper  division  of  the  cleared  land  into 
fields,  size  of  fields,  manner  of  fencing,  etc. 

Thirdly — The  proper  improvement  of  the  soil,  which 
will  include  draining,  manuring,  etc. 

Fourthly — The  cultivation  of  various  kinds  of  crops. 

Fifthly — Seeding  of  land  with  grass  seeds. 

Sixthly — Raising  domestic  animals. 

Seventhly — Necessity  of  barns  and  sheds  sufficient  to 
store  all  crops,  and  protect  domestic  animals  from  the  in- 
clemency of  the  weather. 

FIRSTLY — What  proportion  of  the  farm  it  is  proper  to  pre- 
serve uncleared  of  wood. 

This  will  depend  some  on  the  number  of  fires  which 
must  be  supported  ;  more  on  the  kinds  of  timber  which 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  35 

on  the  land,  but  mostly  on  the  materials  used  for 
fencing.  For  if  but  one  fire  is  needed,  the  growth  of 
wood  on  a  small  number  of  acres  will  be  sufficient  to  sup- 
ply the  requisite  quantity  of  fuel  ;  so  also  if  the  timber  is 
of  a  durable  kind,  a  much  less  quantity  will  be  sufficient 
to  keep  the  fences  in  repair  than  would  otherwise  be 
needed.  The  location  of  the  farm  should  also  be  con- 
sidered, for  if  it  is  located  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  a 
good  market  for  wood,  economy  could  dictate  that  a  larger 
proportion  of  woodland  would  be  profitable  than  under 
other  circumstances.  If  portions  of  the  farm  are  unsuited 
to  tillage,  it  may  be  profitable  to  allow  such  portions  to 
remain  in  wood.  But  where  all  land  is  suitable  for  til- 
lage, where  the  materials  for  fencing  are  not  very  perish- 
able in  their  nature,  and  but  one  fire  is  generally  needed, 
&  proportion  of  15  or  20  per  cent,  in  quantity  on  a  farm 
containing  from  100  to  200  acres,  is  sufficient  to  remain 
in  timber. 

SECONDLY — The  proper  division  of  the  cleared  land  into 
jields,  the  materials  out  of  which  thpse  divisions  are  made, 
and  the  manner  of  making  them. 

The  size  of  the  fields  should  depend  much  on  the  size 
of  the  farm,  the  purposes  for  which  the  fields  will  gene- 
rally be  used,  and  the  expense  of  fencing  ;  but  we  believe 
that  little  danger  need  be  apprehended  from  the  two  small 
size  of  fields,  especially  for  pasturage. 

The  shape  of  the  fields,  for  obvious  reasons,  should  be 
as  near  square  as  the  surface  and  places  for  watering  will 
permit ;  and  if  any  field  or  portion  of  a  field  should  be 
too  wet  for  tillage,  let  it  be  drained  according  to  directions 
which  will  be  hereafter  given. 

The  materials  for  fences  will  depend  much  on  circum- 
stances. Where  stones  of  suitable  size  and  shape  can  be 


obtained  cheaply,  and  within  a  reasonable  distance,  they 
are  undoubtedly  the  best,  and  ultimately  the  cheapest, 
material  out  of  which  a  fence  can  be  constructed.  Next 
to  stones,  a  fence  of  cedar  posts  and  hemlock  boards  is  to 
be  preferred,  because  it  is  durable,  neat  in  appearance, 
occupies  but  little  ground,  and  is  easily  kept  free  from 
weeds.  But  where  stones,  or  posts  and  boards  cannot  be 
easily  obtained,  and  where  chestnut  and  oak  rails  are 
abundant,  and  the  land  cheap,  a  worm-fence  made  of 
these  is  quite  durable,  and  perhaps  next  to  be  preferred. 
Nothing  but  imperious  necessity  will  cause  us  to  build  a 
worm-fence  of  bass-wood  rails  ;  we  believe  that  ultimately 
they  are  the  most  expensive  materials  commonly  used  for 
fencing.  We  have  not  noticed  hedges,  for  we  believe  it 
is  not  yet  satisfactorily  settled,  whether  a  material  has 
been  found  which  is  suitable  and  durable  in  this  latitude  ; 
and  if  such  material  had  been  found,  we  doubt  whether 
it  would  be  extensively  used,  on  account  of  the  frequent 
alteration  of  lines  and  divisions  of  farms  in  this  country. 
But  of  whatever  materials  the  fence  is  made,  or  however 
constructed,  passes  should  be  left  for  the  team  and  wagon 
from  the  highway  to  each  field,  and  from  each  field  to  the 
one  adjoining ;  so  that  in  no  case  shall  it  be  necessary  to 
do  more  than  to  open  the  gate,  or  take  out  the  bars,  in 
passing  from  one  field  to  another. 

THIRDLY — The  proper  improvement  of  the  soil,  including 
draining,  manuring,  etc. 

When  a  due  proportion  of  the  farm  is  cleared  of  wood, 
and  suitably  divided  and  fenced  into  fields,  the  first  inquiry 
should  be,  are  all  of  these  fields  in  a  condition  suitable 
for  tillage?  If,  upon  examination,  any  field  or  part  of 
a  field  is  found  not  to  possess  the  requisite  degree  of  dry- 
ness  to  render  it  suitable  for  tillage  crops  of  any  kind,  let 


37 

the  next  inquiry  be,  is  this  wetness  occasioned  by  springs 
or  by  surface  water  ?  If  the  former,  then  carefully  ex- 
amine and  see  where  it  will  be  necessary  to  locate  drains, 
to  catch  the  water  before  it  breaks  out  on  the  surface. 
If  the  springs  are  small,  economize  closely  so  as  to  con- 
centrate as  many  springs  as  possible  in  one  ditch  ;  but  if 
the  springs  are  large,  there  may  be  danger  ofgetting  more 
water  in  one  ditch  than  it  will  carry,  unless  it  is  made  in- 
conveniently large.  In  this  case  it  may  be  well  to  make 
two  or  more  main  drains.  If  any  springs  exist  which 
cannot  be  brought  within  the  line  of  the  main  drain,  mark 
a  side  cut  from  the  main  ditch  to  the  spring  or  wet  ground, 
and  thus  bring  it  in.  Be  sure  to  have  a  good  draft  and 
outlet  to  the  main  ditch. 

When  the  work  is  thus  laid  out,  begin  at  the  outlet,  and 
dig  a  ditch  two  and  a  half  feet  deep,  as  the  line  of  the 
ditch  is  laid  out.  The  width  of  the  ditch  must  depend 
upon  the  size  of  the  stones  which  will  be  used  for  rilling, 
large  stones  requiring  a  wider  ditch  than  smaller  ones. 
Our  practice  is  to  cut  fourteen  inches  broad  on  the  sur- 
face, and  the  bottom  sufficiently  wide  to  permit  the  free 
use  of  the  common  farm  shovel.  The  stones  should  be 
drawn  and  placed  in  a  row  along  the  bank  of  the  ditch, 
on  the  side  opposite  the  one  on  which  the  earth  is  thrown; 
the  largest  stones  lying  nearest  the  ditch.  The  filling  in 
of  stones  should  commence  at  the  upper  end  of  the  ditch. 
After  removing  all  loose  earth,  place  a  row  of  stones  on 
each  side  on  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  and  cap  with  another, 
leaving  a  tunnel  proportioned  in  size  to  the  quantity  of 
water  which  will  need  to  flow  through.  A  four-inch 
tunnel  is  generally  sufficient.  On  the  top,  and  around 
these  cap-stones,  place  smaller  stones  until  within  twelve 
inches  of  the  earth:  place  a  slight  sprinkling  of  straw  on 
the  stones  to  prevent  the  earth  from  falling  among  them, 
and  with  the  plough  carefully  fill  the  ditch. 


36 

If,  on  examination,  it  is  found  that  the  wetness  proceeds 
from  water  which  falls  upon  the  surface,  and,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  hard  retentive  subsoil,  remains  near  the  sur- 
face until  evaporated,  it  will  be  necessary  to  dig  a  ditch 
(as  before  described)  along  the  lower  side  of  the  field,  as 
a  receiver  for  the  ditches,  which  we  are  about  to  describe, 
to  empty  into.  Then,  at  right  angles  with  this,  make 
drains  (in  the  same  manner)  parallel  to  each  other,  if  the 
surface  of  the  ground  will  permit,  all  emptying  into  the 
first.  The  distance  from  one  drain  to  another  must  de- 
pend on  the  subsoil.  If  that  is  very  stiff,  twenty  feet  will 
be  proper.  But,  if  the  subsoil  is  more  porous,  the  dis- 
tance may  be  thirty  feet.  It  is  believed  that  a  thorough 
use  of  the  subsoil  plough  will  render  the  subsoil  so  porous, 
that  thirty  feet  will  be  sufficiently  near  in  most  cases. 

In  draining,  be  sure  to  make  the  land  dry,  and  fear  not 
the  result.  This  may  be  objected  to,  on  account  of  the 
expense  ;  and  some  may  think  it  will  prove  an  unprofit- 
able outlay  of  capital.  But  it  should  be  remembered, 
that  earth  continually  saturated  with  water  is  worth  no- 
thing except  for  grass,  and  that  is  generally  small  in 
quantity,  and  always  poor  in  quality.  We  know  a  person 
who  has  had  some  experience  in  reclaiming  land  by 
draining,  and,  with  his  permission,  we  shall  now  proceed 
.to  give  you  a  statement  of  facts  concerning  the  condition 
of  a  piece  of  ground  previous  to  draining;  the  cost  of 
draining;  the  tillage  it  has  since  received,  and  the  crops 
which  it  has  produced. 

The  field,  when  the  operation  of  draining  was  com- 
menced in  1837,  contained  seven  and  a  half  acres,  which, 
previous  to  that,  had  never  been  ploughed  ;  was  so  wet 
as  to  be  useless,  except  for  pasturage  ;  and  on  almost 
one-half  of  it  the  grass  was  wild,  coarse  water-grass, 
which  no  animal  would  eat,  except  for  a  short  time  in  the 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  39 

spring ;  the  soil,  a  sandy  loam,  resting  on  a  stratum  of 
gravel  and  pebbles  cemented  together  by  clay.  On 
many  parts  of  this  field  springs  broke  out,  which  leached 
over  the  ground,  mostly  between  the  soil  and  subsoil,  and 
rendered  it  so  wet  that  in  the  early  part  of  spring,  a  little 
exertion  of  a  man  when  standing  on  it  would  shake  the 
earth  for  yards  around.  To  reclaim  this  field,  200  rods 
of  stone  under-drain  were  made,  at  an  expense  of  about 
fifty  cents  per  rod.  The  ditch  was  cut  too  wide,  conse- 
quently it  cost  more  to  dig  and  fill  it  than  it  otherwise 
would.  In  other  respects  it  was  made  according  to  the 
preceding  directions. 

In  the  spring  of  1838,  the  field  received  one  ploughing; 
four  acres  were  sown  with  barley,  (they  should  have 
been  planted ;)  two  acres  were  planted  with  potatoes, 
half  an  acre  with  corn,  and  one  acre  ploughed  a  second 
time  and  planted  with  rutabaga — all  without  manure. 
The  produce  of  this  first  year  was  about  100  bushels  of- 
barley,  600  bushels  of  potatoes,  20  bushels  of  corn,  and 
600  bushels  of  rutabaga.  In  the  spring  of  1839  the  field 
was  once  ploughed,  and  seven  acres  sown  with  Italian 
spring  wheat,  and  the  remaining  half  acre  with  Whit- 
tington  wheat.  The  latter  proved  a  total  failure,  as  it 
proved  to  be  a  variety  of  winter  instead  of  spring  wheat, 
as  was  supposed.  The  Italian  grew  large,  lodged  badly, 
and  shrunk  ;  yielded  15  bushels  per  acre.  In  the  spring 
of  1840,  the  field  was  covered  with  wheat  straw,  and  then 
carefully  ploughed  and  harrowed,  and  planted  with  corn, 
excepting  three  rows  of  potatoes  around  the  piece.  The 
corn  produced  65  and  the  potatoes  250  bushels  per  acre. 
In  the  spring  of  1841,  by  the  alteration  of  an  adjoining 
field,  one-half  an  acre  was  added  to  this.  The  field  was 
then  ploughed  once,  and  four  acres  sown  with  peas,  and 
the  other  four  acres  with  barley.  The  peas  and  barley 


40  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

each  yielded  a  trifle  more  than  30  bushels  per  acre. 
After  they  were  harvested,  the  field  received  one  plough- 
ing, and  was  sown  with  winter  wheat.  The  wheat  stood 
well,  grew  finely,  and  promised  fair  for  a  good  yield  ; 
but,  like  most  of  the  wheat  in  this  section,  it  was  blighted 
with  rust,  and  produced  perhaps  about  10  bushels  per 
acre.  In  the  month  of  April  last,  48  quarts  of  clover 
seed,  and  the  same  quantity  of  timothy  seed,  were  sown 
on  the  field.  In  the  month  of  May,  plaster  was  sewn  at 
the  rate  of  two  bushels  per  acre.  After  the  wheat  was 
harvested,  a  most  luxuriant  growth  of  clover  and  timothy 
covered  the  ground. 

The  above  statement  of  facts  clearly  proves  that  in  this 
instance,  the  capital  which  was  expended  in  draining,  was 
profitably  used  ;  and  doubtless  thousands  of  acres  in  this 
State  might  be  as  profitably  reclaimed  as  were  these,  and 
thus  render  the  country  more  pleasant,  productive,  and 
healthy.  We  consider  it  one  of  the  greatest  improve- 
ments of  modern  farming  ;  for  without  it,  wet  land  cannot 
be  cultivated  with  profit,  because  tillage-crops  cannot  be 
obtained ;  consequently,  a  rotation  of  crops  cannot  be 
practiced,  and  clover,  that  great  fertilizer  of  the  earth — 
that  which  fills  the  fields  of  the  farmer  with  fat  cattle, 
his  barns  with  hay,  and  the  earth  with  manure — will  not 
flourish.  In  short,  it  is  the  basis  of  all  improvement  of 
wet  soils.  Aside  from  profit,  it  enables  the  farmer  to 
convert  unpleasant  looking  spots  on  his  farm  into  fields 
of  surpassing  beauty  and  loveliness ;  which,  with  the 
farmer  of  correct  taste,  is  a  consideration  of  importance. 

We  will  now  consider  the  management  and  application 
of  manure. 

The  most  fertile  land  will  become  exhausted  under  a 
continual  course  of  cropping,  unless  the  soil  is  compen- 
sated for  the  loss  which  it  sustains.  This  is  furnished 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  41 

directly  or  indirectly  in  the  form  of  manure.  And  some 
soils  are  naturally  so  barren,  (or  have  been  made  so  by 
improper  management,)  as  to  be  incapable  of  profitable 
cultivation  without  the  aid  of  some  fertilizing  agent;  con- 
sequently, it  becomes  a  subject  of  great  importance  to 
understand  how  we  can  make  the  most  manure  and  apply 
it  to  the  best  advantage.  We  believe  the  manure  heap 
may  be  doubled  in  quantity,  by  carefully  yarding  the 
domestic  animals  during  the  season  of  foddering,  and 
making  a  proper  use  of  straw  to  furnish  them  with  com- 
fortable lodging.  And  here  permit  us  to  say,  that  aside 
from  the  advantage  of  making  and  preserving  manures, 
but  for  the  purpose  of  economically  keeping  domestic 
animals  in  good  condition,  and  preventing  injury  to  the 
grass-roots  and  the  earth  from  their  treading,  no  domestic 
animal  should  be  allowed  unnecessarily  to  roam  from  the 
yard  after  foddering  commences,  until  the  fields  furnish  a 
good  lite  of  grass  in  the  spring. 

But  if  this  does  not  furnish  sufficient  manure,  and  per- 
harfc  too  much  cannot  be  made  after  the  yards  are  cleared 
in  the  spring,  draw  weeds  of  all  descriptions,  cut  before 
the  seeds  are  sufficiently  matured  to  vegetate,  scrapings 
from  the  roadside,  and  muck  from  the  swamp,  (if  the 
swamp  is  not  to  be  reclaimed  by  draining,)  and  deposite 
them  in  the  yard ;  and  the  quality  of  the  mass  will  be 
much  benefitted  for  most  soils,  by  incorporating  in  it  a 
liberal  quantity  of  lime,  the  whole  worked  together  and 
formed  into  compost.  This  will  absorb  the  liquid  portion 
of  the  manure  made  in  winter,  which  might  otherwise  be 
lost. 

We  believe  that  spring  is  the  best  time  to  apply  manure, 
when  all  nature  is  starting  into  renewed  life  and  energy. 
We  should  recommend  that  it  be  applied  to  hoed  crops, 
as  they  are  the  most  benefitted  by  the  direct  application 


42  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

of  manure,  while  small  grain  is  frequently  injured  by  it, 
as  it  causes  the  straw  to  grow  too  luxuriant  and  soft" to 
sustain  and  mature  the  ear.  To  obtain  the  greatest  ben. 
efit  from  manure,  it  should  be  thoroughly  incorporated 
with  the  earth  near  the  surface.  But  if  it  is  applied  in 
a  coarse  and  unfermented  state,  it  may  be  covered  deeper 
without  sustaining  loss,  as  the  gas  which  is  generated  by 
the  decomposition  of  the  manure  rises  and  is  absorbed  by 
the  earth  above. 

Another  mode  of  improving  the  farm  consists  in  mix- 
ing in  due  proportion  the  various  soils  where  nature  has 
not  done  it.  A  soil  consisting  of  so  large  a  proportion  of 
clay  as  to  lack  a  proper  degree  of  friability,  may  be 
rendered  very  productive  by  the  application  of  sand  ; 
and  vice  versa,  sand  will  become  a  profitable  soil  by  the 
admixture  of  clay.  In  many  sections  where  sand  pre- 
dominates, beds  of  clay  marl  abound,  which  may  be  in- 
corporated with  sand  to  great  advantage. 

Another  method  of  improving  the  farm  consists  in 
gradually  deepening  the  soil  by  deep  ploughing,  which 
enables  the  growing  crops  to  withstand  wet  better,  for  the 
water  will  sooner  settle  away.  It  also  enables  vegetation 
better  to  withstand  drought,  as  the  roots  strike  deeper  and 
derive  moisture  from  a  greater  depth  than  they  could 
with  friable  soil  of  less  depth.  For  the  purpose  of  giv- 
ing greater  depth  and  friability  to  the  soil,  the  subsoil 
plough  is  well  adapted,  and  we  think  will  soon  come 
into  general  use. 

FOURTHLY — Cultivation  of  various  kinds  of  crops. 

The  best  preparation  for  Indian  corn  and  potatoes  is  a 
clover  ley,  made  rich  by  manure.  If  the  manure  is 
long  and  unfermented,  spread  it  on  the  furrow  after  the 
land  has  been  ploughed,  and  incorporate  it  in  the  earth 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  43 

by  thorough  harrowing.  Plough  but  once,  and  spare  no 
pains  to  do  it  thoroughly.  Plant  early  ;  keep  the  crop 
free  from  weeds,  by  frequently  stirring  the  soil  with  the 
cultivator  and  hoe,  and  avoid  hilling,  especially  for  corn. 

For  winter  wheat,  the  best  preparation  which  the  ground 
can  receive  is  a  thorough  summer-fallowing,  though  if 
the  ground  is  free  from  weeds  and  in  good  state  of  cul- 
tivation, wheat  may  be  profitably  sown  with  one  plough- 
in?  after  peas,  and,  perhaps,  on  some  soils  and  in  certain 
situations,  after  corn.  The  wheat  sown  should  be  free 
frdm  all  foul  seeds,  and  in  quantity  about  two  bushels 
per  acre.  Spring  wheat  may  be  successfully  cultivated 
with  once  ploughing  land  on  which  corn  or  potatoes  were 
raised  the  preceding  year.  Barley  requires  soil  and 
treatment  similar  to  spring  wheat. 

Oats  require  much  the  same  treatment  as  spring 
wheat,  and  should  be  sown  early  to  secure  a  good  crop. 
Late  sowing  frequently  produces  a  large  growth  of 
straw,  but  the  berry  is  generally  light. 

In  raising  peas,  we  have  been  most  successful  when 
we  have  inverted  greensward,  and  harrowed  in  three 
bushels  of  seed  per  acre,  on  the  furrow,  and  made  all 
smooth  with  the  roller. 

For  raising  beets,  carrots,  or  rutabaga,  select  a  sandy 
loam  ;  make  it  rich  ;  plough  deep;  plant  evenly  ;  keep 
the  ground  free  from  weeds  by  frequent  hoeing,  and  do 
not  suffer  the  plants  to  stand  too  thick.  Follow  these 
directions,  and  an  abundant  crop  will  be  very  sure  to 
crown  your  labors. 

FIFTHLY — Seeding  land  with  grass  seeds. 

This  subject  deserves  greater  attention  from  the  farm- 
ing  community  than  it  has  generally  recehed.  Owing 
to  a  lack  of  proper  seeding,  large  quantities  of  land  are 


44  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

annually  left  a  barren  waste,  or,  what  is  worse,  produce 
large  quantities  of  noxious  weeds,  which  are  allowed  to 
perfect  their  seeds,  and  these  are  wafted  on  the  wings  of 
the  wind  in  every  direction,  blasting  the  hopes  and  de- 
stroying the  expectations  which  the  more  prudent  and 
economical  farmer  had  entertained,  that  he  should  be  able 
to  eradicate  and  keep  clear  from  his  land  pestiferous 
plants.  Oh  !  that  man  would  learn  to  do  to  others  as  he 
would  have  them  to  do  by  him  in  similar  circumstances. 
We  deem  it  of  the  utmost  importance  that  all  land  should 
be  properly  seeded  with  grass  seeds,  whenever  it  is  to  be 
suffered  to  remain  uncultivated  with  grain.  This  not  on- 
ly helps  to  keep  the  land  free  of  weeds,  but  it  furnishes 
food  for  domestic  animals,  tends  greatly  to  keep  the  land 
fertile,  and  renders  it  more  easy  of  cultivation  when 
needed.  The  kind  of  seeds  used  must  depend  somewhat 
on  the  condition  of  the  soil.  But  if  this  is  sufficiently 
dry  to  permit  a  rotation  of  crops,  which  we  think  it  should 
be,  we  know  of  none  better  than  red-clover  and  herds'- 
grass.  The  quantity  we  would  recommend  is  twelve 
quarts  per  acre,  equal  parts  of  each  by  measure. 

The  best  time  for  sowing  on  winter  grain,  is  on  some 
of  the  last  snows  of  spring.  If  sown  too  early,  it  may 
vegetate  before  the  severe  frosts  of  spring  are  all  past,  and 
if  it  does,  they  are  liable  to  destroy  the  young  plants.  If 
the  grass  seeds  are  to  be  sown  with  spring  grain,  first 
sow  the  grain  and  harrow  once  over,  then  sow  the  grass 
seeds,  harrow  lightly  and  make  all  smooth  with  the  roll- 
er. In  the  month  of  May,  sow  two  bushels  of  plaster 
per  acre,  to  preserve  the  young  plants  from  the  effects  of 
drought.  If  it  is  intended  for  pasturing,  sow  plaster  on 
it  the  next  spring  ;  but  if  it  is  intended  for  mowing,  omit 
the  second  dressing  of  plaster,  for  it  is  very  liable  to 
cause  the  clover  to  grow  too  rank,  to  fall  and  become 


THE  EMIGRANT  S  HAND-BOOK.  45 

mouldy  ;  which  injures  the  quality  of  the  grass,  and 
greatly  increases  the  labor  of  cutting.  Let  the  motto  of 
the  farmer  be  to  plough  often,  and  seed  often  and  plenti- 
fully with  grass  seeds. 

SIXTHLY — Raising  Domestic  Animals. 

.1  preparing  to  raise  domestic  animals,  the  first  thing  to 
be  considered  is  the  use  for  which  they  are  intended. 
No  prudent,  well-informed  man,  would  think  of  raising 
a  racer  from  the  French  horse  of  Canada,  or  a  plough- 
horse  from  the  light  racer  of  the  south  ;  a  fine  woolled 
sheep  from  a  Cots  wold,  or  a  heavy  mutton  sheep  from  a 
fine  Saxonjf  ;  a  pig  that  should  fatten  young  from  a  land 
pike,  or  one  which  would  attain  great  weight  from  the 
Chinese  breed  We  have  different  breeds,  and  these  are 
adapted  to  different  purposes. 

After  having  selected  that  breed  of  the  different  kinds 
of  domestic  animals  which  he  thinks  best  adapted  to  the 
"purpose  for  which  he  wishes  to  rear,  he  should  endeavor 
to  obtain  good  animals  to  reed  from.  These  he  should 
never  suffer  to  deteriorate,  but  should  endeavor,  by  care- 
fully preserving  the  best  animals  for  breeders,  to  improve 
on  his  stock.  In  order  to  do  this,  it  is  necessary  to  feeu 
well,  and  keep  the  animal  constantly  improving.  By 
feeding  well,  we  do  not  mean  high  or  extravagant  feed ; 
but  we  mean,  start  the  animal  as  you  can  hold  out,  and 
never  suffer  it  to  lose  an  inch  which  is  gained  ;  for  if 
you  do,  the  forage  consumed  by  the  animal  while  falling 
back  and  again  coming  up  to  the  point  before  attained, 
is  lost  ;  also  the  time,  care  and  attention  bestowed  upon 
it,  and  the  interest  on  the  value  of  the  animal  in  the 
meantime.  In  addition  to  all  this,  it  is  doubtful  whether 
an  animal  so  treated  is  capable  of  becoming  so  perfect 
as  it  might  have  been,  if  it  had  been  at  all  times  kept 


46  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

gradually  improving.  It  is  easily  perceived,  that  the 
farmer  who  does  not  at  all  times  keep  his  domestic  ani- 
mals in  good  condition,  does  not  practice  that  which  is  for 
his  interest ;  but  we  wish  also  to  appeal  to  his  humanity. 
Can  the  farmer,  who  suffers  his  domestic  animals  to  roam 
over  the  highway  or  fields,  with  but  a  scanty  pittance 
for  food,  and  no  protection  from  the  chilling  blasts  of 
winter,  wasting  away  the  little  flesh  tl-ey  may  have  gain- 
ed in  summer,  and  perhaps  losing  life  itself  from  actual 
starvation,  lay  any  well-founded  claims  to  humanity  ? 
We  think  not.  If  any  of  us  are  thus  cruelly  treating 
our  domestic  animals,  would  it  not  be  well  for  us  to  re- 
form our  own  practice  before  we  charge  our  southern 
neighbors  with  cruelty  ?  The  abolition  of  cruelty  to  an- 
imals should  at  once  be  adopted,  and  no  person  who  re- 
fuses to  comply  with  its  reasonable  and  humane  require- 
ments, can  plead  that  the  Constitution  forbids  it,  legal 
enactments  are  opposed  to  it,  or  that  self-interest  is  not 
promoted  by  it. 

SEVENTHLY — Necessity  of  barns  and  sheds  sufficient  to  store 
all  crops,  and  protect  domestic  animals  from  the  inclem- 
ency of  the  weather. 

The  following  are  a  few  of  the  many  reasons  which 
might  be  urged  in  favor  of  barns  and  sheds  sufficient  to 
store  all  crops,  and  protect  domestic  animals  from  inclem- 
ent weather. 

1.  Crops  are  preserved  in  better  condition  in  barns  than 
they  can  be  in  stacks. 

2.  Hay  or  grain  when  deposited  in  stacks,  is  always  in 
an  unsafe  condition  until  the  stack  is  completed,  which 
frequently  cannot  be  on  the  day  when  commenced,  and 
sometimes  several  days  will  unavoidably  elapse  between 
the  commencement  and  completion.     This  inconvenience 


47 

and  loss  are  obviated  by  the  use  of  barns,  for  each  load 
when  deposited  is  considered  safe. 

3.  All  forage  for  domestic  animals  can  be  more  conve- 
niently and  economically  fed  from  barns  than  it  can  be 
from  stacks ;  for  when  the  stack  is  opened,  a  certain  por- 
tion is  always  exposed  to  injury  from  storms,  and  a  con- 
siderable portion,  when  fed  to  animals,  is  blown  away  or 
trodden  under  foot.     The  animals,  while  consuming  the 
feed,  are  exposed  to  cold  sleet  and  chilling  blasts,  from 
which  they  would  gladly  retreat,  did  not  stern  necessity 
compel  them  to  eat  thus  exposed  or  starve.     No  animals 
thus  exposed  can  be  expected  to  thrive ;  and  it  is  cer- 
tain they  will  not,  unless  they  consume  a  much  greater 
quantity  of  food  than  would  be  required  if  kept  dry,  com- 
fortable, and  not  compelled  to  fight  the  whirlwind. 

4.  When  animals  are  fed  in  stables  or  sheds  well  lit- 
tered, a  larger  quantity  of  manure  may  be  made — a  large 
proportion,  if  not  all  of  which  can  be  kept  under  shelter, 
and  thus  preserved  from  the  great  loss  which  exposure  tc 
storms  occasions. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

FARM    BUILDINGS,    FENCES,  ETC. 

IN  this  department  will  be  found  ample  directions  for 
the  various  kinds  of  dwellings  which  our  readers  may  be 
likely  to  need  ;  from  the  rude,  though  comfortable  log 
shanty,  to  the  costly  and  tasteful  framed  and  brick  house. 

In  the  selection  of  a  spot  for  a  dwelling,  one  that  is  dry 
and  somewhat  elevated  should  be  chosen.  The  conven- 
ience of  a  spring  should  also  be  considered.  If  there  be 
handsome  trees  standing  on  and  around  the  selected  site, 
be  careful  not  to  cut  down  too  many  of  them.  Spare  the 
trees ;  you  will  not  repent  it.  Have  an  eye  to  ornament 
as  well  as  utility  and  convenience. 

LOG  SHANTY. 

Sonia  will  advise  a  house  to  be  first  built,  others  a 
"  shanty  ;"  but  the  latter  is  so  expeditiously  done,  and  is 
so  much  cheaper,  and  a  comfortable  house  till  the  emigrant 
gets  "  acclimated,"  that  we  consider  it  the  best.  A  shanty 
is  built  of  logs  cut  from  the  felled  trees.  The  size  of  the 
building  to  be  according  to  the  number  of  rhe  family. 
They  are  to  be  seen  from  fourteen  feet  long  and  twelve 
broH,  to  eighteen  feet  by  fr  -rteen  feet  or  so — the  shape 
as  v  ilows: 


52 


THE  FARMER'S  AND 


fl 


FRONT. 


BACK. 


The  roof  may  be  covered  with  shingles,  or  with  boards. 
Shingles  are  made  from  the  pine,  by  cutting  a  pine-tree 
down,  and  then  cutting  it  with  a  saw  called  a  "cross-cut 
saw,"  into  lengths  or  blocks  of  eighteen  inches  long,  (they 
are  cut  sometimes  twenty-four  inches  long,)  and  these 
blocks  are  split  into  thin  slices  of  different  breadths,  but 
they  will  be  about  one  length.  These  are  shaved  off  with 
a  drawing-knife,  at  one  end,  when  the  shingle  is  done. 
They  are  sold  from  one  and  a  half  dollars  to  two  and  a 
half  dollars  per  bunch,  containing  what  is  called  one 
thousand  shingles,  of  different  breadths.  A  thousand 
shingles  will  cover  about  ten  feet  square  of  a  roof,  (that 
is,  equal  to  100  square  feet.)  They  are  laid  on  boards, 
(and  the-  roughest  and  cheapest  boards,  split  or  sound, 
will  do,)  like  the  slates  or  tiles  of  the  old  country  houses. 
No  rain  or  wet  will  get  through  them,  and  they  answer 
all  the  purposes  of  the  slated,  tiled,  or  thatched  roof  of  a 
house  in  the  old  country.  But  the  roof  of  the  shanty  may 
be  covered  with  boards.  These  are  put  on  the  roof, 


53 

breadthways,  and  are  got  of  lengths  to  extend  across  the 
breadth  of  the  roof;  and  if  put  on  two  inches  apart  from 
each  other,  and  if  the  boards  are  twelve  inches  broad, 
will,  in  a  roof  of  fourteen  feet  long,  take  only  about  thir- 
teen boards,  allowing  them  to  "  lap  "  over  at  the  ends. 
The  spaces  between  each  of  the  boards  are  then  covered 
by  slabs,  or  by  narrow  boards.  The  roof  is  then  com- 
pleted. Slabs  are  the  outside  "slices,"  as  we  may  term 
them,  which  are  taken  off  the  logs  at  the  saw-mill,  in 
squaring  them  to  make  straight-edged  boards.  These 
can  be  got  at  the  mill  for  taking  them  away,  though  some- 
times a  cent  is  asked  for  each  slab.  The  spaces  between 
the  logs  are  filled  in  from  the  inside  of  the  building  by 
split  pieces  of  basswood,  cedar,  or  other  wood,  which  splits 
easy,  and  this  operation  is  called  "  chinking."  On  the 
outside  of  these  spaces,  the  settler  then  plasters  them  over 
with  mortar ;  being  the  clay  mixed  up  with  water,  and 
which  makes  a  good  substitute  for  lime.  By  mixing  a 
little  sand  with  the  mortar,  it  makes  it  harder  when  dry, 
and  not  so  liable  to  crack.  The  chimney  is  built  at  one 
end  of  the  shanty,  and  may  be  built  in  two  ways,  by  split 
laths,  (split  pieces  of  basswood,)  and  then  plastered  over 
with  mortar,  or  by  making,  as  it  were,  four  ladders,  spars 
of  which,  ten  inches  or  so  apart,  and  then  filling  up  the 
spaces  with  what  are  sometimes  called  "  cats,"  being 
mortar  mixed  up  with  hay  (wild  meadow  hay  the  best,) 
or  straw,  and  moulded  by  the  hand  into  lengths,  accord- 
ing to  the  breadth  of  the  spars  in  the  ladders ;  and  these 
are  laid  over  the  spars  and  joined  together,  each  succeed- 
ing course  being  joined  to  the  one  below,  and  thus  form 
when  dry  a  continued  and  solid  chimney,  perfectly  free 
from  harm  by  the  fire,  which  the  first  described  chimney 
(by  split  pieces  of  wood,)  is  not.  But  this,  and  the  fixing 
the  windows  and  the  door,  by  cutting  out  the  logs  of  the 


54  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

building  and  fitting  in  windows  and  door-casings,  etc.,  will 
at  once  be  learned,  in  a  few  hours,  by  an  inspection  by 
the  emigrant  on  the  spot,  and  by  the  hints  from  his  neigh- 
bors. If  the  emigrant  will  spare  the  money,  carpenters 
(wrights  and  joiners)  can  be  got  to  fix  the  roof,  windows, 
door,  and  floor. 

LOG  HOUSE. 

If  the  emigrant  resolves  on  having  a  house  in  place  of 
a  shanty,  we  may  state  that  it  costs  more  money,  time, 
and  labor,  than  a  shanty  will.  The  work  to  be  done  to 
a  house  is  of  the  same  kind  as  required  for  a  shanty, 
which  being  described  need  not  be  repeated.  The  differ- 
ence is,  that  the  house  is  built  up  of  logs  to  the  height  of 
ten  feet,  or  so,  on  the  four  sides,  and  there  is  an  upper 
floor,  joists  being  put  in  as  the  building  is  raised.  Houses 
vary  in  size  from  twenty  feet  by  sixteen  or  eighteen,  to 
thirty  feet  long  and  twenty  feet  wide.  The  roof  is  not  a 
shed  or  shanty  roof,  but  the  same  as  an  ordinary  house, 
shaped  like  this : 


When  the  shanty  or  house  is  to  be  raised  or  built,  the 
neighbors  are  invited,  and  they  always  come  willingly, 
for  there  is  not  one  among  them  but  had  the  same  done  to 
himself.  This  is  called  a  "  bee." 

By  turning  to  the  second  chapter  of  this  book,  page  26, 
a  more  minute  description  of  the  manner  of  making  a 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  55 

log- house  may  be  found ;  together  with  an  accurate  esti- 
mate of  the  expense." 

It  may  be  well  enough  to  add,  that  elm  bark  makes 
a  good  covering  for  the  roof,  instead  of  shingles.  In 
the  spring  of  the  year,  when  the  leaves  are  just  coming 
out,  the  bark  peels  off  easily,  and  pieces  as  large  as  two 
men  could  lift  can  be  taken  off.  The  bark,  after  being 
stripped  off,  should  be  spread  out  flat  to  dry  a  little.  It 
may  then  be  put  on  the  roof  in  strips  of  four  or  five  feet 
in  length,  and  as  wide  as  the  bark  will  allow.  It  should 
then  be  pinned  down  with  hemlock  or  maple  pins.  An 
auger  will  be  necessary  to  make  the  pin-holes  true,  so 
that  they  shall  not  leak. 


60  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

PLAN  FOR  A  FARM  COTTAGE. 

The  accompanying  plan  is  designed  for  a  house  that 
will  be  within  the  means  of  most  farmers.  It  is  arranged 
lo  be  built  at  separate  times,  or  all  together,  as  may  best 
suit  the  wants  or  ability  of  the  builder.  The  object  has 
been  to  combine  convenience  and  comfort  with  economy, 
and  at  the  same  time  have  it  make  a  pleasant  appearance. 
Economy  in  the  use  of  fuel  is  aimed  at  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  fires,  and  for  this  reason  stoves  are  used,  and  no 
fire-places  made  except  for  the  kitchen ;  the  chimneys 
merely  coming  sufficiently  below  the  ceiling  of  the  upper 
rooms  to  admit  the  pipe.  The  wing  is  eighteen  feet  by 
twenty-four,  with  fourteen  feet  posts,  the  roof  spanning 
'**•**  long  way,  and  contains  the  hall,  stairs,  a  large  room 
and  a  small  bed-room,  and  a  closet  under  the  stairs,  on 
the  first  floor,  and  two  chambers  with  closets  on  the  second 
floor.  The  lower  story  to  be  eight  or  nine  feet  in  the 
clear,  leaving  a  comfortable  attic  above.  The  main 
building  is  eighteen  feet  by  twenty-six,  with  eighteen  feet 
posts,  with  a  piazza  on  two  sides,  which  is  to  be  extended 
in  front  of  the  wing  to  shelter  the  door ;  this  contains  the 
parlor  and  bed-room,  with  a  closet,  and  a  passage  commu 
nicating  with  the  other  parts  of  the  house,  on  the  lower 
floor,  and  two  chambers  with  closets  on  the  second  floor. 
The  lower  story  to  be  ten  feet  high,  the  upper  rooms  to 
be  arched  under  the  roof,  making  them  from  eight  to  nine 
feet  high. 

The  rear  is  one  story,  eighteen  feet  by  twenty- two,  with 
a  piazza  on  one  side,  and  contains  the  kitchen,  pantry, 
and  cheese-room,  back  and  cellar  stairs.  The  cellar  is 
planned  to  extend  under  this  part  of  the  house,  though  it 
can  be  made  larger  if  desired.  The  outside  cellar-door 
and  windows  are  shown  in  the  elevation.  The  wood- 
house  is  to  be  joined  to  the  rear  of  this,  and  is  partly 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK. 


57 


shown  in  the  plan,  but  the  size  is  left  to  the  convenience 
of  the  builder. 


3* 


58 


THE  FARMER'S  AND 
M 


GROUND   PLAN FIRST   FLOOR. 

EXPLANATION DIMENSIONS    IN   THE   CLEAR 

A,  Dining  Room,  14  x  17  feet. 

B,  Bed-room,  8  x  11  feet. 

C,  Hall,  6x8  feet. 

D,  Parlor,  15  x  17  feet. 

E,  Bed-room,  10  x  16  feet. 
F  F,  Passages,  3J  feet  wide. 
G,  Kitchen,  16  x  17  feet. 

H,      Front  Stairs,  3  feet  clear. 
I,        Closet  under  Stairs. 
J,       Bed-room  Closet. 
K  L,  Cheese-room  and  Pantry, 


THE    EMIGRANT  S    HAND-BOOK. 

M,  Wood  House,  24  x  —  feet. 

N,  O,  Fire-place  and  Oven. 

P,  P,  Piazza,  7  feet  wide. 

Q,  Piazza,  6  feet  wide. 

R,  Back  and  Cellar  Stairs. 

S,  Wood  House  Stairs. 

T,  Closet. 

V,  Cistern. 

W,  Outside  Cellar  Door. 

X,  X,  Cupboards. 

1,  Place  for  Stove. 

2,  False  Fire-place. 


59 


GROUND    PLAN SECOND    FLOOR, 


EXPLANATION. 


A,  Room,  11  x  11  feet. 

B,  do      11x14  feet. 

C,  do      14  x  17  feet. 

D,  do      10  x  14  feet. 
I,  I,  I,  I,  Closets. 


60 

F,  F,    F,  Passages. 

G,  Garret  over  Kitchen- 

1,  1,  Stove  Pipes  and  Chimneys. 
S,  Stairs. 

The  explanations  of  the  cuts  refer  to  the  house  when  it 
shall  be  completed — there  is  no  extra  room  to  be  kept  for 
great  occasions ;  by  removing  the  piazza  on  the  side,  and 
building  another  wing,  an  extra  parlor  can  be  obtained, 
which  may  communicate  with  the  other  by  folding  or 
sliding  doors  if  desired,  and  also  a  small  office  or  library 
communicating  with  this  parlor  and  the  bed-room.  This 
would  give  the  exterior  a  more  regular  appearance. 

The  bed-room  is  to  be  warmed  by  the  pipe  from  the 
parlor  stove,  passing  through  the  false  fire-place  into  a 
sheet-iron  dummy,  and  thence  up  through  the  room  above, 
which  it  would  warm  some,  into  the  chimney.  The  cook- 
ing stove  might  be  placed  in  the  room  marked  A,  in  cold 
Weather,  the  pipe  passing  through  the  room  above  into  the 
chimney.  This  would  keep  the  house  comfortably  warm 
with  two  fires. 

The  pantry,  cheese-room  and  cellar  stairs,  are  placed 
with  a  view  to  this  arrangement,  and  the  parlor  and  bed- 
room are  separated  from  this  room  by  a  passage,  for  the 
same  reason. 

In  the  ground  plans,  the  doors  are  represented  by  fine 
single  lines,  and  the  windows  by  double  lines.  The  bed- 
room window  which  opens  on  the  piazza,  should  reach 
down  to  the  floor,  as  also  the  parlor  window  opposite  the 
steps.  The  stairs  are  crowded  forward  into  the  hall  some, 
to  bring  the  landing  at  the  top  in  the  right  place.  They 
are  lighted  at  the  top  by  an  attic  window  at  the  end  of  the 
central  passage  F. 

The  windows  of  each  room  are  made  to  look  out  to  as 
many  points  of  the  compass  as  possible,  as  it  adds  much 


THE    EMIGRANT  S    HAND-BOOK.  61 

Ld  the  pleasantness  of  the  house,  especially  in  warm 
weather ;  and  the  doors  which  communicate  from  one 
room  to  another,  are  nearly  in  direct  lines. 

It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  a  plan  can  be  made  to  suit 
all  situations ;  the  formation  of  the  ground,  and  the  point 
of  compass  to  which  it  must  front,  would  necessarily  re- 
quire it  to  be  varied,  in  some  cases,  even  if  the  plan  itself 
suited  in  the  detail.  This  may  be  done  by  inverting  the 
plan  :  an  easy  way  of  doing,  which  is  to  place  it  before  a 
window  and  draw  the  lines  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
paper. 

I  have  drawn  this  to  be  built  of  wood,  as  that  is  the 
most  common  way  of  building.  It  may  be  built  of  brick 
or  stone,  by  allowing  a  little  more  for  thickness  of  walls. 

Chicago.  T.  WRIGHT. 

• 

CHEAP  FARM-HOUSE. 

FROM  SOLON  ROBINSON,  ESQ. 

Inclosed,  I  send  you  a  plan  for  a  small  cheap  farm- 
house, twenty-four  by  thirty-two  feet,  and  one-and-a-half 
story  high,  f  have  des'gned  to  set  the  south  end  to  the  road, 
so  that  the  main  entrance  would  be  on  the  south  end  of  the 
porch  and  thence  into  either  room.  The  east  side  of  the  porch, 
I  should  hope  to  see  ornamented  with  woodbine,  honey- 
suckle, or  some  of  the  family  of  creepers.  In  the  summer 
time,  such  a  porch  would  be  the  pleasantest  part  of  the 
house — a  delightful  fragrant  shade  in  a  sultry  afternoon. 
You  see  I  have  made  a  good-sized  kitchen,  for  in  a  farm- 
house this  is  the  room  principally  occupied  by  the  whole 
family  ;  and  should  be  so  arranged  that  it  will  be  warm 
and  pleasant  in  winter,  and  easily  ventilated  in  summer. 
The  shed  at  the  north  end  will  protect  that  side,  and  af- 
ford room  for  wood,  etc.,  and  in  summer,  will  be  very 
useful  for  washing,  soap-making,  and  other  rough  work. 


THE    FARMER  S    AND 


In  placing  the  stairs,  I  have  not  calculated  for  a  cellar, 
as  1  do  not  believe  that,  in  this  climate  and  soil,  it  is  healthy 
to  have  a  cellar  under  the  dwelling ;  but  if  one  is  required, 
I  would  open  the  door  on  to  the  porch,  which  would  pre- 
vent the  deleterious  gas  from  rising  up  the  stairway  di- 
rectly into  the  room.  If  the  builder  should  prefer  to  have 
the  front  room  larger,  he  can  run  the  stairs  up  one  side 
of  the  pantry.  In  that  case,  he  could  build  the  kitchen 
part  complete  in  itself,  and  afterward  add  the  front  part. 


&    ZZ    ffi 


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THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK. 


63 


PLAN  OF  A  PRAIRIE  FARM  HOUSE. 


THE    FARMER  S    AND 


[•Tl 


d 


GROUND      PLAN. 

A  PRAIRIE  FARM  HOUSE. 

The  annexed  plan  is  designed  for  a  prairie  farm-nouse, 
and  is  calculated  to  combine  economy,  comfort,  and  con- 
venience,  with  a  pleasant  and  home-like  appearance. 
The  importance  of  this  requisite,  is  not  generally  appre- 
ciated in  the  construction  of  farm  dwellings  in  this  coun- 
try ;  and  although  a  tasty  appearance  is  considered  de- 
sirable by  most  farmers,  many  think  it  a  waste  of  money 
to  lay  out  fifty  or  a  hundred  dollars  on  piazzas  and  the  like 
additions  to  a  house,  costing  ten  to  fifteen  hundred  dollars, 
to  secure  this  end.  To  be  sure,  the  moral  benefit  arising 
from  having  an  attractive  dwelling  for  a  home,  cannot 
be  estimated  in  dollars  and  cents  ;  yet  who  will  deny 


65 

that  our  happiness,  the  object  we  are  all  in  search  of,  is 
sensibly  increased  by  it.  There  is  now  and  then  a  farm- 
er who  has  the  good  sense  to  appreciate  this  object ;  and 
to  aid  such,  this  plan  is  offered  for  publication.  It  is  de- 
signed for  a  southern  or  eastern  aspect,  the  end  fronting 
to  the  road.  The  plan  is  drawn  for  a  frame-house,  but 
may  be  altered  for  brick  or  stone,  by  increasing  the 
thickness  of  the  walls.  Its  convenience  will  be  seen  at 
a  glance.  It  contains  all  the  room  which  a  farmer  in 
moderate  circumstances  needs,  and  there  is  none  that  is 
superfluous.  Should  any  like  to  build  after  the  plan, 
who  are  not  able  to  build  the  whole  at  once,  the  rear  part 
can  be  put  up  first,  and  will  answer  as  a  dwelling  by 
using  the  meal-room  as  a  bed-room.  The  main  building 
is  eighteen  by  thirty-six  feet,  outside ;  the  lean-to-addi- 
tions, each  eight  feet  wide.  The  rear  building  is  eighteen 
by  twenty-five  feet.  The  posts  to  the  main  building  are 
sixteen  feet ;  to  the  piazza,  ten  feet ;  to  the  rear  building, 
twelve  feet.  The  rooms  upon  the  lower  floor  are  nine 
feet  betweenv  floors,  and  the  chambers  eight  feet.  The 
room  ~b  is  intended  for  a  dining-room  in  summer,  and  the 
room  h  for  a  summer  kitchen  ;  in  winter,  the  room  J  to 
be  used  for  both  purposes.  The  expense  of  completing 
the  whole,  including  cellar  under  the  main  part,  is  esti- 
mated at  from  $800  to  $1000,  according  to  location  and 
the  material  used. 

EXPLANATION  OF  GROUND  PLAN,  a  parlor,  17  by 
15  feet;  b  kitchen,  17  by  15  feet;  c  c  bed-rooms,  8 
by  13  ;  d  d  piazzas,  8  by  23  ;  e  e  entries,  6  feet  wide  ; 
f  buttery,  6  feet  square  ;  g  milk-room,  6  feet  square  ;  h 
back  kitchen,  12  by  13  feet;  i  wood-house,  12  feet 
sqare  ;  j  meal-room,  6  by  8  feet ;  k  chamber  stairs,  4 
feet  wide  ;  I  cellar  stairs  ;  m  Franklin  stove  ;  n  n  steps  ; 
o  o  o  o  closets ;  p  wood-house  stairs  ;  q  pump  ;  r  sink ; 


66 


THE    FARMER  S    AND 


*  bulk.head,  covering   outside   cellar   stairs ;  2  cooking 
stove ;  3  place  for  stove  in  summer. 


a 


f 


SECOND       STORY. 

EXPLANATION,  a  chamber,  17  by  15  feet ;  b  b  bed- 
rooms, 12  by  8  feet ;  c  passage  ;  d  staircase  ;  e  closet ; 
f  drum,  connected  by  pipe  with  stove  below. 

DESIGN  FOR  A  FARM  HOUSE  AND  OUT-BUILDINGS. 

BY  JOHN  J.  THOMAS,  MACEDON,  N.  Y. 

Figures  1,  2,  3,  represent  the  farm-house — fig.  1,  the 
elevation,  partaking  of  the  Italian  style  ;  fig.  2,  the  ground 
plan,  and  fig.  3,  plan  of  the  second  floor.  A  form  nearly 
square  is  given  to  the  building,  for  the  sake  of  economy, 
requiring  far  less  external  covering  for  the  space  inclosed  ; 
at  the  same  time  the  outline  is  somewhat  broken,  to  pre- 
vent heaviness  and  monotony  of  expression.  About  half 


I 

THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK. 


ELEVATION Fig.   1. 

is  surrounded  with  a  veranda,  under  which  lathing  and 
plastering  may  take  the  place  of  clapboards,  and  thus 
save  expense.  The  whole  building  may  be  considered  as 
composed  of  two  parts  or  wings,  extending  from  front  to 
back  ;  the  ridge  of  their  roofs  also  in  the  same  direction, 
connected  by  a  centre  building  with  the  roof,  at  right 
angles  to  the  two  former.  The  two  wings  are  chiefly 
occupied  as  parlor  and  family  room  in  front,  and  kitchen 
and  nursery  back ;  and  the  centre  part  as  a  library,  (for 
books,  minerals,  maps,  astronomical  diagrams,  etc.)  lighted 
by  a  skylight  in  the  roof,  through  a  circular  opening 
surrounded  by  a  railing,  in  the  second  floor.  This  open- 
ing will  admit  of  thorough  ventilation  of  the  adjacent 
rooms  below,  if  desired,  or  it  may  be  closed  by  a  sash  of 
glass,  the  light  softened  by  a  translucent  varnish.  The 
kitchen  is  lighted  with  one  very  broad  window.  A,  A, 
are  chimneys,  and  admit  of  open  fire-places  for  the  par- 
lor, nursery,  kitchen  and  family  room.  If  a  hot  air  fur- 
nace is  used,  by  placing  it  under  the  centre  of  the  library, 
the  heated  air  may  be  easily  conducted  to  all  the  rooms 


THE  FARMER'S  AND 


GROUND    PLAN Fig.  2. 

above.  The  nursery  entry  opens  on  the  large  veranda, 
enabling  children  to  take  fresh  air  in  all  weathers.  A 
back  entrance  to  the  parlor  may  be  easily  made  from  the 


axic 


la* 


I9X1C 


SECOND    FLOOR Fig.  3. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  69 

same  entry,  if  wished.  The  bed-room,  adjoining  the 
nursery,  is  covered  with  a  lower  roof,  separate  from  the 
rest  of  the  roof,  and  corresponds  with  the  roof  of  the 
porch. 

The  eaves  are  five  feet  above  the  second  floor ;  and 
four  feet  additional  rise  in  the  roof,  gives  ample  height  for 
the  upper  rooms,  which  may  be  six  in  number,  and  allow 
sufficient  space  for  closets. 

The  dairy  should  occupy  the  coolest  part  of  the  cellar, 
and  be  entirely  separated  from  other  parts  by  walls. 
The  best  and  cheapest  material  for  the  floor,  is  a  coating 
of  two  inches  of  water-lime  mortar. 

The  size  of  this  house  will  appear  too  large  to  many, 
but  it  is  not  larger  than  the  houses  of  a  large  portion  of 
our  farmers,  after  piecing  and  patching ;  costs  much  less, 
and  appears  far  better.  It  is  much  easier  to  pass  from 
one  room  to  another  on  the  same  level,  than  to  pass  a 
flight  of  stairs ;  hence  the  aim  has  been  to  have  as  many 
of  those  in  common  use  on  the  same  floor.  This  also 
contributes  to  economy  in  erection — as  calculation  will 
readily  show.  A  one-story  house,  ten  feet  high  and  forty 
feet  square,  will  inclose  1600  feet  of  floor ;  a  two-story 
house,  twenty-eight  and  a  half  feet  square  and  twenty 
feet  high,  will  also  inclose  1600  feet;  but  the  latter  will 
require  650  feet  more  of  siding,  which  will  cost  more, 
with  painting,  than  the  addition  in  shingling  the  former. 

A  careful  and  liberal  estimate,  made  from  full  bills  of 
costs  of  several  houses  actually  erected  by  the  writer, 
places  the  cost  of  this  building,  if  made  plain,  and  of 
wood,  at  about  $1,400,  at  the  average  price  of  materials, 
teaming,  labor,  etc.,  in  central  and  western  New- York. 
This  cheapness  is  owing  principally  to  the  cottage  form, 
compact  arrangement,  and  the  diminution  of  siding  and 
paint  under  the  veranda. 


70 


THE  FARMEU S  AND 


ELEVATION  OF  THE  FARMERY Fig.  4. 

Figure  4,  is  an  elevation  of  the  farmery,  and  fig.  5  ig 
a  plan  of  the  farmery,  house,  and  adjacent  grounds.  The 
farm  buildings  form  nearly  a  hollow  square,  the  barn  in 
the  centre  of  the  further  range.  In  fig.  5,  the  barn  cellar 
only  is  shown,  being  on  a  level  with  the  stables  on  each 
side.  The  further  part  is  for  roots,  and  is  filled  through 
two  windows  with  hopper-like  troughs, 
into  which  the  cart  is  dumped.  The 
nearer  part  is  for  straw,  to  be  used  for 
cutting  and  for  littering.  From  the 
intermediate  space,  passages  four  feet 
wide,  run  in  front  of  the  stables  on 
either  side,  for  feeding.  Fig.  6,  shows 
the  upper  floor  of  the  barn ;  A,  un- 
threshed  grain  ;  R,  corn-crib  ;  C,  gra- 
nary, the  bin  for  oats,  with  an  opening 
below  for  feeding  horses  ;  this  opening  closed  by  a  sliding 
board.  A  door  opens  from  each  of  the  last,  to  facilitate 
loading  of  wagons  from  them  in  the  yard  below  ;  the  bay 
for  straw  extends  upward  as  high  as  the  top  of  the  gra- 
nary, over  which  a  floor  is  placed  for  holding  unthreshed 
grain  above.  The  dotted  lines  show  the  wagon-way  for 
entering  and  passing  from  the  barn  floor. 

This  way  should  be  wide  enough  on  one  side  to  place 
the  horse-power  of  a  threshing  machine.     A  band  may 


Figure  6. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK. 


71 


t>^tm9atnJ(      ."' 

go.6,  AC  Lr 

STRAW  Ihnxroa: 


PLAN  OF  FARMERY,  HOUSE  AND  GROUNDS Fig.  5. 

extend  from  this  horse-power  through  a  hole  in  the  floor, 
and  drive  the  straw-cutter,  root-slicer,  etc.,  below.  The 
hay  for  horses  and  cows  is  kept  in  the  loft  over  the  stables, 
from  which  it  is  conveniently  thrown  down  into  the  pas- 
sage in  front  of  the  animals.  E,  shed  for  sheep,  with 


72  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

racks  at  right  angles  to  the  passage  R,  from  which  they 
are  filled  with  hay  thrown  down  from  above  ;  e,  sheep- 
yard  ;  F,  piggery  ;  ft  pig-yard  ;  G,  room  for  boiling 
roots ;  I,  poultry-house  ;  P,  passage  from  manure  yard, 
o,  to  back  part  of  farm.  K,  K,  calf-house ;  L,  work-shop ; 
M,  house  for  ploughs,  harrows,  horse-rakes,  rollers,  etc. ; 
N,  wagon-shed.  H,  house  for  keeping  store  wood  during 
seasoning,  wood  seasoned  two  or  three  years  being  much 
better  than  for  a  shorter  period ;  and  a  rough  boarded 
out-building,  being  also  cheaper  than  a  well  finished, 
painted  one  in  contact  with  the  house.  The  manure  yard 
o,  should  be  about  two  feet  below  the  surrounding  build- 
ings, to  which  the  cleanings  of  the  stables  are  to  be  taken 
daily  in  a  large  boxed  wheelbarrow,  and  straw  and  marsh 
muck  supplied  as  needed.  The  yard  should  be  well  sup- 
plied with  water  as  convenience  may  dictate.  Ventilators, 
made  of  square  board  tubes,  should  be  placed  over  the 
stables  and  run  up  through  the  roof. 

This  plan  may  be  changed,  without  altering  the  general 
arrangement,  so  as  to  contain  more  or  less  grain,  more  or 
less. hay,  stable  room,  etc.,  according  to  circumstances. 
The  hollow  square  affords  shelter  to  the  yard  from  wind, 
an  important  consideration  for  our  climate.  The  extent 
and  expense  of  the  buildings,  are  not  greater  than  are 
often  seen,  when  convenience  of  arrangement  is  entirely 
set  aside ;  and  the  labor  of  preparing  food,  and  feeding 
animals,  double  what  it  should  be.  The  wings,  sheds, 
poultry-yard,  garden,  etc.,  may  be  reversed,  according  to 
aspect  and  exposure  to  winds. 

PISE,  UNBURNT  BRICK  HOUSES. 

IN  very  many  sections  of  the  West,  particularly  where 
good  lumber  is  obtained  with  difficulty,  houses  might  be 
built  with  advantage  after  the  following  plan.  The  fbl- 


• 

THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.         73 

lowing  was  translated  from  the  French  for  the  Southern 
Agriculturalist. 

In  many  of  the  northern  departments  of  France,  par- 
ticularly in  Champagne,  the  name  of  Pise  is  often  improp- 
erly given  to  a  kind  of  unburnt  brick  or  artificial  stone, 
made  with  the  mud  of  streets  or  roads,  with  which  is  (al- 
most always)  incorporated  a  little  straw  ;  this  mixture  is 
then  pressed  in  wooden  moulds,  then  taken  out  to  be  dried 
in  the  sun  or  shade.  This  pretended  pise  is  used  for  want 
of  other  materials  suitable  for  building,  and  by  this  means 
are  obtained  the  most  miserable  constructions  possible, 
incapable  of  supporting  the  lightest  roof;  which  conse- 
quently require  a  frame-work  to  be  raised  from  the  foun- 
dation to  the  roof,  in  order  to  support  it.  Besides,  the 
repairs  to  this  kind  of  building,  render  it  really  the  most 
expensive  of  all ;  for  this  kind  of  brick  soon  cracks,  warps, 
separates  from  the  wooden  frame,  and  soon  falls  upon  the 
slightest  shock,  either  outside  or  within  the  house.  In 
other  countries  farther  south,  as  Artois  and  Flanders, 
where  stone  buildings  are  very  expensive,  another  kind 
of  pise  or  unburnt  brick  is  used  ;  although  made  in  the 
same  way,  they  are  very  good,  on  account  of  the  quality 
of  the  earth,  which  is  chalky  and  compact,  and  which 
even  without  straw  does  not  crack  in  the  sun.  These 
bricks  cement  so  well  with  mortar,  that  when  an  old  wall 
or  c.himney  is  pulled  down,  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  it 
broken  into  only  three  or  four  pieces  by  its  fall.  These 
buildings  can  therefore  be  solid  and  economical,  for  the 
only  remarkable  expense  is  in  the  foundations,  which 
ought  to  be  rubble-work,  brick  or  tabbey,  raised  at  least 
one  foot  above  the  earth  around.  As  to  the  true  pise, 
which  we  derive  from  the  Romans,  it  is  still  much  used 
at  Lyons,  and  in  some  of  the  southern  departments — also 
in  Italy,  Spain,  etc.  It  differs  essentially  from  the  bricks 

4 


74  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

or  artificial  stones  that  have  just  been  described.  It  also, 
however,  is  only  an  unburnt  earth,  not  tempered,  but 
slightly  moistened  ;  rendered  very  fine,  then  squeezed  and 
well  beaten  in  large  or  small  moulds,  or  between  two 
boards  strongly  fastened  to  each  other,  by  which  means 
can  be  constructed  inclosures,  walls  and  houses  of  several 
stories  of  no  greater  thickness  than  is  common  in  masonry. 
"  It  would  appear  almost  incredible,"  says  Mr.  Rosier, 
"  if  experience  did  not  support  the  assertion,  that  walls  of 
earth  could  last  many  centuries,  provided  they  are  well 
plastered  with  mortar,  protected  from  the  rain,  and  secured 
against  moisture  by  foundations  in  masonry  raised  above 
the  level  of  the  earth." 

As  to  the  kinds  of  earth,  there  are  very  few  which  are 
not  suitable  for  pise,  except  pure  clay,  because  it  cracks 
in  drying,  and  pure  sand,  because  it  admits  of  no  adhe- 
sion. Where  there  is  a  choice,  the  preference  is  to  be 
given  to  that  which  is  stiff — that  which  sets  or  clods 
easiest ;  which  is  known  by  its  retaining  the  shape  given 
to  it  by  the  hand,  without  sticking  to  the  fingers — such 
generally  is  the  untried  earth  of  gardens.  Stiff  earth, 
mixed  with  gravel,  provided  it  is  not  too  coarse,  is  employed 
with  equal  success  ;  it  ought  also  to  contain  no  admixture 
of  roots  or  manures,  which  by  rotting  would  allow  the  air 
to  penetrate  and  injure  the  wall.  As  to  the  moisture  that 
this  earth  ought  to  have,  it  ought  to  be  the  same  that  it 
usually  has  in  a  natural  state,  at  two  or  three  feet  below 
the  surface.  When  it  is  well  pulverized,  it  is  put  into 
the  moulds  or  between  two  boards,  and  well  rammed  or 
beaten  with  rammers,  which  will  reduce  its  volume  and 
allow  more  earth  to  be  added,  which  must  be  beaten  in 
the  same  manner,  until  the  moulds  or  boards  are  exactly 
filled. 

Previously  to  adding  more  earth,  the  iat>i  layer  ought 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  BAND-BOOK.  75 

to  be  scratched  with  a  sharp  iron,  or  small  mattock,  in 
order  that  the  two  layers  may  join  exactly,  and  form  but 
one  body.  At  Lyons,  where  this  style  of  building  is  very 
common,  they  have  large  cases  or  boxes,  without  bottoms, 
which  are  supported  by  pieces  of  boards  laid  across  the 
walls  ;  the  pieces  are  movable,  and  can  be  placed  in 
succession  ;  as  they  are  filled  with  pise,  the  short  boards 
are  drawn  from  their  original  places,  and  carried  further 
on  to  support  them  again,  and  so  on  in  succession.  In  the 
adjustment  of  one  round  to  another,  mark  or  scratch  the 
work  as  above,  or  put  a  little  mortar  to  serve  as  a  cement. 
Also,  from  one  story  to  another,  it  is  necessary  to  put 
some  bits  of  rough  board,  flat  and  in  different  positions  at 
the  corners,  to  prevent  the  walls  from  separating.  The 
partitions  are  done  in  the  same  way.  Spaces  are  always 
kept  open  for  windows  and  doors,  by  placing  the  frames 
for  them  beforehand,  or  they  are  set  in  brick  or  stone, 
where  either  is  convenient. 

By  either  method  of  making  the  pise,  in  a  little  time, 
and  at  small  expense,  can  be  constructed  houses  and  other 
rural  buildings,  covering  them  like  brick  or  stone  houses. 
Both  these  methods  have,  however,  an  essential  defect; 
which  is,  that  the  ramming  of  the  earth,  and  consequently 
the  hardness  and  solidity  of  the  pise,  vary  from  one  box 
to  another,  and  from  morning  to  afternoon.  This  solidity 
depends,  in  fact,  upon  the  expertness  and  strength  of  the 
rammers,  which  are  not  always  in  the  same  degree.  In 
the  morning,  for  instance,  the  work  is  always  well  rammed, 
but  toward  night,  fatigue  necessarily  causes  some  diminu- 
tion :  hence,  a  sort  of  imperfection  in  the  work.  Again, 
as  the  work  must  be  done  in  the  open  air,  (which  suits 
warm  countries  very  well,  where  it  rains  at  long  inter- 
vals,) it  is  often  exposed  to  rains  in  our  mild  climate : 
(France  :)  and  rain  is  a  great  obstacle,  which-occasions 


76 

almost  always  a  good  deal  of  imperfection  in  the  making 
of  pise.  It  was  for  this  reason  that  Cointereau,  architect 
from  the  city  of  Lyons,  having  settled  at  Paris  toward 
the  end  of  his  career,  conceived  the  idea  of  making  his 
pise  beforehand  under  sheds,  in  small  moulds,  where  it 
was  easier  to  press  them  always  equally,  and  to  allow 
them  to  dry  beforehand,  sheltered  from  the  rains  and  other 
vicissitudes  of  the  seasons :  which  produced  in  the  end 
true  bricks  or  artificial  stones  of  great  hardness,  and  con- 
sequently excellent  materials  for  building.  It  must  be 
understood  that  in  working  them,  as  in  using  hewn  stone, 
a  little  thin  mortar  or  quick-lime  will  be  required.  In 
some  places,  stiff  earth  makes  an  excellent  mortar  for  this 
kind  of  pise.  The  size  and  shape  of  the  moulds  can  be 
varied  in  such  a  way  as  to  answer  in  all  cases  and  for  all 
purposes.  In  this  way,  can  be  made  beforehand,  not  only 
artificial  stone,  ready  cut  for  the  corners  and  angles  of 
the  windows  and  doors,  but  also  for  pilasters,  columns, 
circular,  elliptic  and  gothic  arches,  etc.;  for  experience 
has  proved,  that  with  the  exception  of  the  key,  which  can 
be  of  wood  as  well  as  hewn  stone,  pise  can  be  used  for 
the  vaults  of  cellars  provided  it  is  protected  from  moisture. 
However,  for  the  brick,  and  even  for  every  other  purpose, 
it  would  be  as  well  to  prepare  moulds  of  only  moderate 
dimensions,  so  that  each  brick  shall  not  weigh  more  than 
twenty-five  or  thirty  pounds,  then  one  man  can  easily 
handle  and  place  them :  otherwise  it  would  be  necessary 
to  employ  more  men,  more  time,  and  tools  which  neces- 
sarily wear  off  the  corners  of  these  stones  or  bricks,  and 
injure  them.  It  will  be  seen  in  the  sequel  how  economi- 
cal is  this  style  of  building,  even  in  countries  where  wood, 
stone  and  lime  are  more  abundant.  It  is  the  true  rural 
construction,  cool  in  summer,  warm  in  winter;  and  is  be- 
sides susceptible,  at  a  small  expense,  of  the  handsomest 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  77 

decorations  by  means  of  fresco  paintings,  which  are  easily 
put  on,  and  resist  the  vicissitudes  of  the  seasons  ;  it  will 
be  seen  also,  that  they  can  be  of  very  great  solidity. 

The  rioh  proprietors  and  merchants  of  Lyons,  who  have 
delightful  villas  in  the  environs  of  this  city,  build  them 
exclusively  of  pise,  plastered  over  and  painted  in  fresco 
in  the  best  taste,  and  at  very  moderate  expense. 

This  plastering  ought  not  to  be  put  on  until  the  pise"  is 
completely  dry,  unless  it  be  done  in  quick-lime,  or  lime 
very  freshly  slaked. 

A  pise  house  has  the  double  advantage  of  being  soon 
finished  arid  habitable,  and  of  costing  much  less  than  an- 
other. It  also  furnishes,  when  it  is  pulled  down,  an  ex- 
cellent manure  for  moist  soils.  I  repeat,  it  is  the  true 
rural  and  rustic  building,  for  the  rich  as  well  as  for  the 
poor,  and  that  can  be  adopted  in  every  country.  It  can 
also  last  centuries  if  it  be  well  done.  Not  only  many 
modern  authors,  and  among  others  Rosier,  affirm  these 
advantages,  but  all  the  ancients  have  proved  it,  and  Pliny 
the  younger  mentions,  that  Hannibal  had  built  in  Spain 
lanterns  and  towers  upon  the  summits  of  mountains, 
which  still  were  in  existence  in  his  day — which  supposes 
at  least  three  hundred  years  preservation.  There  is 
neither  cement  nor  mortar,  says  he,  which  is  harder 
than  this  earth,  which  resists  rain,  wind  and  fire.  Cadet 
de  Vaux  mentions  that  the  younger  Baily,  a  French 
physician  who  went  into  Spain  to  study  the  yellow  fever, 
visited  some  years  since  the  ruins  of  Saguntum,  dismant- 
led more  than  two  thousand  years  since,  and  could  not 
detach  a  small  sample  of  the  pise  of  which  they  were 
originally  formed,  without  the  assistance  of  a  chisel  and 
mallet  ;  and  in  our  days  the  siege  of  Lyons  has  proved 
the  solidity  of  this  species  of  construction,  in  resisting 
the  efforts  of  the  most  formidable  artillery  :  in  truth,  the 


78  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

balls  passed  easily  through  the  walls  of  pise,  but  did  not 
shake  them,  while  it.  upset  easily  and  with  a  great  crash 
those  walls  in  round  or  hewn  stone.  At  any  rate,  if,  as 
it  has  been  said  in  the  beginning,  it  is  desired,  like  Coin- 
tereau,  to  make  pise  beforehand  under  sheds,  in  small 
moulds,  as  well  for  greater  facility  as  to  secure  greater 
hardness  and  a  more  equal  compression,  and  to  avoid  the 
irregularities  of  the  seasons,  etc.,  this  is  what  we  have 
first  to  consider.  Experience  has  generally  proved  that 
fine  earth,  being  pressed  to  half  its  volume,  as  is  neces- 
sary for  greater  solidity,  weighs  always  from  120  to  160 
Ibs.  the  cubic  foot,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  ele- 
ments which  it  contains  ;  now  a  cubic  foot  contains  1,728 
cubic  inches — thus,  an  artificial  stone  or  brick  of  pise, 
the  fourth  of  a  cubic  foot,  will  weigh  30  to  40  Ibs.,  which 
would  still  be  a  great  deal  to  be  handled  easily  by  one 
person,  as  it  would  often  be  necessary.  Besides,  ex  peri, 
ence  has  equally  proved,  that  a  person  could  do  more 
work  with  small  hewn  stones,  than  with  too  large,  in  a 
given  time  ;  wherefore  it  would  be  well  to  reduce  ours  to 
the  fifth  or  even  the  sixth  of  a  cubic  foot ;  they  will  still 
weigh  '20  to  25  Ibs.  Now,  if  we  are  satisfied  with  a  walU 
eighteen  inches  thick,  which  is  suitable  for  many  circum- 
stances, we  can  content  ourselves  with  artificial  stones  of 
six  inches  wide,  four  inches  thick,  and  twelve  inches 
long,  making  288  cubic  inches,  or  one-sixth  of  a  cubic 
foot ;  in  short,  one  of  these  stones  lengthwise,  and  another 
across,  and  so  on  alternately  in  the  construction  of  the 
wall,  would  enable  us  to  keep  exactly  and  always  this 
thickness  of  eighteen  inches  ;  and  if  we  wished  to  extend 
this  thickness  to  two  feet  or  reduce  it  to  one,  as  partition 
walls  would  probably  require,  nothing  would  be  easier, 
since  in  the  first  place  it  would  be  enough  to  put  two  stones 
end  to  end,  and  in  the  second,  it  would  only  be  necessary 


79 

to  put  them  one  after  the  other  in  order  to  obtain  the  de- 
sired thickness,  in  any  other  case,  it  would  be  equally 
easy  to  arrange  the  lengths,  breadths,  and  thickness  of 
this  kind  of  stone.  Thus,  a  stone  ten  inches  long,  could 
be  only  five  wide  and  five  inches  thick  to  make  up,  and  if  it 
was  fourteen  inches  by  seven,  three  inches  thickness  would 
be  enough,  in  order  not  to  exceed  too  much  the  prescrib- 
ed weight  of  20  to  25  pounds.  For  partition  walls,  small 
pise  stones  of  four  inches  thickness,  by  such  length  and 
breadth  as  would  suit.  Now  that  the  size  and  weight  of  our 
pise  stones  are  settled,  we  will  go  to  work  in  the  following 
way,  viz :  we  will  first  make  strong  moulds,  having  the 
prescribed  lengths  and  breadths  in  the  clear,  and  a  height 
at  least  double  the  thickness  the  stones  are  to  have  ; 
these  moulds  ought  to  be  of  good  wood,  well  made  and 
well  mortised,  in  the  same  way  as  moulds  for  bricks. 
They  must  be  filled  with  suitable  fine  earth,  and  struck 
off  smooth  without  pressing  it  even  with  the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  mould.  Next,  press  the  earth  tightly  with 
the  hand,  then  with  a  block  fitting  exactly  the  inside  of 
the  mould,  compressing  it  to  half  its  size  either  by  means 
of  a  lever-press,  mall,  or  other  process  that  may  be  con- 
venient. Such  are  the  means  pointed  out  by  Cointereau, 
which  are  very  easy  to  be  understood  and  executed. 
What  is  more  difficult  is,  after  having  pressed  the  block 
down  sufficiently  to  reduce  the  brick  of  pise  to  the  de- 
sired thickness,  to  take  out  the  brick  easily,  as  it  often 
sticks  very  hard  in  consequence  of  the  great  compression. 
In  order  to  accomplish  this,  recourse  must  be  had  to  all 
the  means  employed  in  brick-yards  in  similar  cases; 
sand  or  earth  very  fine  or  very  dry  must  be  used.  Be- 
fore putting  the  earth  into  the  moulds,  the  inside  of  the 
mould,  the  table  upon  which  it  is  pressed,  and  the  hot- 
torn  of  the  block,  must  be  well  sprinkled  with  the  drj 


80  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

sand,  etc.— the  brick  will  then  come  out  easily,  by 
bearing  upon  the  block  and  raising  the  mould,  and  pro- 
vided that  the  mould  is  very  little  larger  and  longer  be- 
low. When  the  mould  is  taken  off,  the  brick  must  be 
taken  in  both  hands  with  great  care,  and  put  upon  a  board 
to  dry,  as  is  done  with  bricks.  If,  after  having  employed 
all  the  means  mentioned  above,  there  should  still  be  dif- 
ficulty in  getting  the  brick  out  of  the  mould,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  heat  the  mould  and  grease  the  inside,  and 
there  will  be  no  further  trouble. 

At  the  end  of  a  few  days,  care  must  be  taken  to  turn 
these  bricks  upon  their  side,  and  upon  the  other  sides  in 
succession,  in  order  that  the  drying  may  be  complete. 
When  they  are  very  hard  or  very  dry,  they  can  be  piled 
carefully  against  the  wall,  to  remain  until  wanted  for 
use  ;  then  it  will  be  the  work  of  a  few  days  only  to  raise 
the  intended  buildings,  and  nothing  will  remain  but  to 
cover  them. 

It  must  be  understood  that,  for  the  angles  of  the  win- 
dows and  doors,  suitable  moulds  and  bricks  of  pise  must 
be  prepared ;  and  if  need  be,  they  may  be  cut  with  the 
saw,  like  true  hewn  stones. 

PISE  HOUSES. 

In  connection  with  the  article  upon  this  subject,  Mr. 
Ellsworth's  report  will  be  found  valuable.  We  cannot 
but  believe  this  kind  of  building  will  become  common  in 
the  West,  and  if  experiments  are  made,  we  should  be 
happy  to  learn  of  them. — Prairie  Fanner. 

After  selecting  a  suitable  spot  of  ground,  as  neat  the 
place  of  building  as  practicable,  let  a  circle  often  fe«tor 
more  be  described.  Let  the  loam  be  removed,  and  the 
clay  dug  up  one  foot  thick  ;  or  if  clay  is  not  found  on  the 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BO 3K.  81 

spot,  let  it  be  carted  in  to  that  depth.  Any  ordinary  clay 
will  answer.  Tread  this  clay  over  with  cattle,  and  add 
some  straw  cut  six  or  eight  inches  long.  After  the  clay 
is  well  tempered  by  working  it  with  cattle,  the  material 
is  duly  prepared  for  making  the  brick.  A  mould  is  then 
formed  of  plank,  of  the  size  of  the  brick  desired.  In  Eng- 
land, they  are  usually  made  eighteen  inches  long,  one 
foot  wide,  and  nine  inches  thick.  I  have  found  the  more 
convenient  size  to  be,  one  foot  long,  seven  inches  wide, 
and  five  inches  thick.  ^  The  mould  should  have  a  bottom. 
The  clay  is  then  placed  in  the  mould  in  the  same  manner 
that  brick  moulds  are  ordinarily  filled.  A  wire  or  piece 
of  iron  hoop,  will  answer  very  well  for  striking  off  the 
top.  One  man  will  mould  about  as  fast  as  another  can 
carry  away,  two  moulds  being  used  by  him.  The  bricks 
are  placed  upon  the  level  ground,  where  they  are  suf- 
fered to  dry  two  days,  turning  them  up  edgewise  the  sec- 
ond day  ;  and  then  packed  in  a  pile,  protected  from  the 
rain,  and  left  to  dry  ten  or  twelve  days,  during  which 
time  the  foundation  of  the  building  can  be  prepared.  If 
a  cellar  is  desired,  this  must  be  formed  of  stone  or  brick, 
one  foot  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  For  cheap 
buildings  on  the  prairie,  wood  sills,  twelve  or  fourteen 
inches  wide,  may  be  laid  on  piles  or  stones.  This  will 
form  a  good  superstructure.  Where  lime  and  small  stones 
abound,  grout  made  of  those  materials  (lime  and  stones) 
will  answer  very  well. 

In  all  cases,  however,  before  commencing  the  walls  for 
the  first  story  it  is  very  desirable,  as  well  in  this  case  as 
in  walls  of  brick,  to  lay  a  course  of  slate  ;  this  will  inter- 
cept the  dampness  so  often  rising  in  the  walls  of  brick 
houses.  The  wall  is  laid  by  placing  the  brick  length- 
wise, thus  making  the  wall  one  foot  thick.  Ordinary 
clay,  such  as  is  used  for  clay  mortar,  will  suffice,  though 


82 

a  weak  mortar  of  sand  and  lime,  when  these  articles  are 
cheap,  is  recommended  as  affording  a  more  adhesive  ma- 
terial for  the  plaster.  The  wall  may  safely  be  carried 
up  one  story,  or  two  or  three  stories ;  the  division  walls 
may  be  seven  inches,  just  the  width  of  the  brick.  The 
door  and  window  frames  being  inserted  as  the  wall  pro- 
ceeds, the  building  is  soon  raised.  The  roof  may  be  shin- 
gles  or  thatch.  In  either  case,  it  should  project  over  the 
sides  of  the  house,  and  also  over  the  ends,  at  least  two 
feet,  to  guard  the  walls  from  vertical  rains  The  exte- 
rior wall  is  plastered  with  good  lime  mortar,  and  and  then 
with  a  second  coat,  pebble-dashed.  The  inside  is  plas- 
tered without  dashing.  The  floors  may  be  laid  with  oak 
boards,  slit,  five  or  six  inches  wide,  and  laid  down  with- 
out jointing  or  planing,  if  they  are  rubbed  over  with  a 
rough  stone  afte  r  the  rooms  are  finished .  Doors  of  a  cheap 
and  neat  appearance  may  be  made,  by  taking  two  single 
boards  of  the  length  or  width  of  the  doors  ;  placing  these 
vertically,  they  will  fill  the  space.  Put  a  wide  batten  on 
the  bottom  and  a  narrow  one  on  the  top,  with  strips  on  the 
side,  and  a  strip  in  the  middle.  This  door  will  be  a  batten 
door,  but  presenting  two  long  panels  on  one  side,  and  a 
smooth  surface  on  the  other.  If  a  porch  or  veranda  is 
wanted,  it  may  be  roofed  with  boards  laid  with  light  joints 
and  covered  with  a  thick  paper  dipped  in  tar,  and  then 
adding  a  good  coat,  after  sprinkling  it  with  sand  from  a 
sand-box  or  other  dish  with  small  holes. 

Houses  built  in  this  way  are  dry,  warm  in  winter,  and 
cool  in  summer,  and  furnish  no  retreats  for  vermin.  Such 
houses  can  be  made  by  common  laborers — if  a  little  car- 
penter's work  is  excepted — in  a  very  short  time,  with  a 
small  outlay  for  materials,  exclusive  of  floors,  windows, 
doors,  and  roof. 

The  question  will  naturally  arise,  Will  the  wall  stand 


against  the  rain  arid  frost  ?  I  answer,  they  have  stood 
well  in  Europe,  and  the  Hon.  Mr.  Poinsett  remarked  to 
me  that  he  had  seen  them  in  South  America,  after  hav- 
ing been  erected  300  years.  Whoever  has  noticed  the 
rapid  absorption  of  water  by  a  brick  that  has  been  burned, 
will  not  wonder  why  brick  walls  are  damp.  The  burn- 
ing makes  the  brick  porous,  while  the  unburnt  brick  is 
less  absorbent ;  but  it  is  not  proposed  to  present  the  un- 
burnt brick  to  the  weather.  Whoever  has  erected  a 
building  with  merchantable  brick,  will  at  once  perceive 
the  large  number  of  soft  and  yellow  brick,  partially 
burned,  that  it  contains — brick  that  would  soon  yield  to 
the  mouldering  influence  of  frost  and  storms.  Such  brick 
are,  however,  placed  within,  beyond  the  reach  of  rain, 
and  always  kept  dry.  A  good  cabin  is  made  by  a  single 
room,  twenty  feet  square.  A  better  one  is  eighteen  feet 
wide  and  twenty-four  feet  long,  cutting  off  eight  feet  on 
one  end,  for  two  small  rooms,  eight  by  eight  each. 

How  easily  could  a  settler  erect  such  a  cabin  on  the 
western  prairie,  where  clay  is  usually  found  about  fifteen 
inches  below  the  surface,  and  where  stone  and  lime  are 
often  both  very  cheap.  The  article  of  brick  for  chimneys 
is  found  to  be  quite  an  item  of  expense  in  wood  houses. 
In  these  mud  houses  no  brick  are  needed,  except  for  the 
top  of  the  chimney,  the  oven,  and  casing  of  the  fire-place 
— though  this  last  might  be  well  dispensed  with.  A  ce- 
ment, to  put  around  the  chimneys,  or  to  fill  any  other 
crack,  is  easily  made  by  a  mixture  of  one  part  of  sand, 
two  of  ashes,  and  three  of  clay.  This  soon  hardens,  and 
will  resist  the  weather.  A  little  lard  or  oil  may  be  added 
to  make  the  composition  still  harder. 

Such  a  cottage  will  be  as  cheap  as  a  log  cabin,  less 
expensive  than  pine  buildings,  and  durable  for  centuries. 
I  have  tried  the  experiment  in  this  city,  by  erecting  a 


84  THE  FARMER'S  AN0 

building  eighteen  by  fifty-four  feet,  two  stories  high,  adopt- 
ing the  different  suggestions  now  made.  Although  many 
doubted  the  success  of  the  undertaking,  all  now  admit  it 
has  been  very  successful,  and  presents  a  convenient  and 
comfortable  building,  that  appears  well  to  public  view, 
and  offers  a  residence  combining  as  many  advantages  as 
a  stone,  brick,  or  wood  house  presents.  I  will  add  what 
Loudon  says  in  his  most  excellent  work,  the  Encyclo- 
paedia of  Agriculture,  pp.  74  and  75: 

"  The  great  art  in  building  an  economical  cottage,  is 
to  employ  the  kind  of  materials  and  labor  which  are 
cheapest  in  the  given  locality.  In  almost  every  part  of 
the  world,  the  cheapest  article  of  which  the  walls  can  be 
made*  will  be  found  to  be  the  earth  on  which  the  cottage 
stands ;  and  to  make  good  walls  from  the  earth,  is  the 
principal  art  of1  the  rustic  or  primitive  builder.  Soils, 
with  reference  to  building,  may  be  divided  into  two  classes  : 
clays,  loams,  and  all  such  soils  as  can  neither  be  called 
gravels  nor  sands,  and  sands  and  gravels.  The  former, 
whether  they  are  stiff  or  free,  rich  or  poor,  mixed  with 
stones  or  free  from  stones,  may  be  formed  into  walls  in 
One  of  these  modes,  viz :  in  the  pise  manner,  by  lumps 
moulded  in  boxes,  and  by  compressed  blocks.  Sandy 
and  gravelly  soils  may  always  be  made  into  excellent 
walls,  by  forming  a  frame  of  boards,  leaving  a  space  be- 
tween the  boards  of  the  intended  thickness  of  the  wall, 
and  filling  this  with  gravel  mixed  with  lime  mortar,  or, 
If  this  cannot  be  got,  with  mortar  made  of  clay  and  straw. 

"  In  all  cases,  when  walls,  either  of  this  class  or  the 
former,  are  built,  the  foundations  should  be  of  stone  or 
brick,  and  they  should  be  carried  up  at  least  a  foot  above 
the  upper  surface  of  the  platform." 

We  shall  here  commence  by  giving  one  of  the  sim- 
plest modes  of  construction,  from  a  work  of  a  very  excel. 


85 

tent  and  highly  estimable  individual,  Mr.  Benson,  of 
Waterbeach,  Cambridgeshire,  the  author  of  the  Peasant's 
Voice,  who  built  his  own  cottage  in  the  mfcnner  described 
below : 

"  Mode  of  building  the  mud  walls  of  cottages  in  Cam- 
bridgeshire. After  a  man  has  dug  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  clay  for  his  purpose,  he  works  it  up  with  straw ;  he  is 
then  provided  with  a  frame  eighteen  inches  in  length,  six 
deep,  and  from  nine  to  twelve  inches  in  diameter.  In 
this  frame  he  forms  his  lumps,  in  the  same  manner  that 
a  brick-maker  forms  his  bricks ;  they  are  then  packed 
up  to  dry  by  the  weather ;  that  done,  they  are  fit  for  use, 
as  a  substitute  for  bricks.  On  laying  the  foundation  of 
a  cottage,  a  few  layers  of  brick  are  necessary,  to  prevent 
the  lumps  from  contracting  a  damp  from  the  earth.  The 
fire-place  is  lined  and  the  oven  is  built  with  bricks.  I 
have  known  cottagers,  where  they  could  get  the  grant  of 
a  piece  of  ground  to  build  on  for  themselves,  erect  a  cot- 
tage of  this  description  at  a  cost  of  from  £15  to  £30.  I 
examined  one  that  was  nearly  completed,  of  a  superior 
order  ;  it  contained  two  good  lower  rooms  and  a  chamber, 
and  was  neatly  thatched  with  straw.  It  is  a  warm,  firm, 
and  comfortable  building,  far  superior  to  the  one  I  live 
in  ;  and  my  opinion  is,  that  il  will  lest  for  centuries. 
The  lumps  are  laid  with  mortar,  they  are  then  plastered, 
and  on  the  outside  once  roughcast ;  which  is  done  by 
throwing  a  mixture  of  water,  lime,  and  small  stones, 
against  the  walls,  before  the  plaster  is  dry,  which  gives 
them  a  very  handsome  appearance.  The  cottage  I  ex- 
amined cost  £33,  and  took  nearly  one  thousand  lumps  to 
complete  it.  A  laborer  will  make  that  number  in  two 
days.  The  roofs  of  cottages  of  this  description  are  pre- 
cisely the  same  as  when  built  with  bricks  or  a  wooden 
frame.  Cow-house  sheds,  garden  walls,  and  partition 


88  THE    FARMER  S   AND 

fence,  are  formed  with  the  same  materials ;  but  in  all 
cases  the  tops  are  covered  with  straw,  which  the  thatchers 
perform  in  a  tery  neat  manner." — Denson's  Peasant's 
Voice,  p.  31. 

MODE  OF  FENCING  AND  DITCHING. 

A  good  embankment,  three  feet  high,  with  a  ditch,  fur- 
nishing a  drain  for  surplus  water,  is  made  with  astonishing 
rapidity.  The  embankment  affords  a  foundation  for  a 
short  post  to  hold  two  or  three  rails,  which  is  found  suffi- 
cient to  inclose  or  exclude  cattle.  The  machine  to  make 
the  embankment  need  not  cost  over  two  dollars,  including 
labor  and  materials.  It  may  be  constructed  by  any 
farmer,  with  the  help  of  an  axe  and  auger.  It  seems 
almost  incredible  that  two  planks  twelve  feet  long,  united 
at  an  angle  of  eighteen  or  twenty  degrees,  can  throw  up 
dirt  with  such  facility.  The  wedge  and  inclined  plane 
seem  united,  and  the  only  difficulty  is,  to  ascertain  at 
what  angle  dirt  will  slide.  The  angle  above  mentioned 
will  answer  in  most  soils.  If  the  angle  should  prove  too 
obtuse,  the  brace  in  the  rear  might  be  so  formed  as  to 
graduate  the  scraper  as  desired.  If  the  planks  are  ex- 
tended in  length,  the  height  of  the  embankment  may  be 
increased,  or  the  dirt  thrown  farther  from  the  furrow,  if 
the  object  is  to  turnpike  the  soil  or  to  grade  it  for  rails  ; 
and  it  appears,  that  the  machine  will  greatly  lessen  the 
expense  of  making  roads  on  lands  where  large  roots  form 
no  obstacle  to  the  common  plough,  which  precedes  this 
scraper.  To  expedite  turning  at  the  end  of  the  furrow, 
a  bent  lever,  (a  crooked  joint  will  answer,)  affixed  about 
the  centre,  will  raise  the  machine  so  as  to  turn  on  a  point ; 
and  much  friction  may  be  saved,  by  tacking  to  the  land 
side  a  few  inches  of  plank  at  the  front  and  rear,  or  by 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  87 

excavating  the  land  side  in  the  middle,  if  made  from  a 
solid  stick. 

A  plough  and  scraper  might  be  combined,  but  the  same 
strength  in  two  teams  will  be  more"  desirable.  When 
land  is  dear,  the  objection  might  arise  that  too  much  is 
wasted.  This,  however,  will  have  no  weight  in  the  West, 
where  land  is  plenty.  Indeed,  some  in  Europe  have 
urged  the  benefit  of  sloping  embankments,  as  they  increase 
the  surface  for  grazing ;  which  is  an  admitted  fact,  the 
sides  of  a  hill  being  greater  than  its  base.  An  excava- 
tion is  made  on  both  sides  of  the  embankment.  The  ditch 
is  eighteen  inches  only,  and  the  embankment  eighteen 
inches  above  the  common  surface,  making  an  elevation 
from  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  perpendicularly,  of  three 
feet,  and  giving  a  slope  at  ten  degrees,  of  about  four  feet. 
The  slope,  in  some  soils,  must  not  exceed  thirty  degrees, 
which  will  depend  upon  the  soil.  Less  than  this  would 
expose  the  bank  to  crumble  by  the  frost,  and  more  would 
make  the  acclivity  so  small  as  to  permit  cattle  to  ascend 
it.  Nor  is  the  improvement  in  making  the  embankment 
alone  worthy  of  special  notice.  The  posts  are  bored  with 
dispatch  by  one  or  more  augers,  propelled  by  hand  or 
horse-power.  The  augers  are  two  and  a  half  inches, 
and  these,  by  two  apertures,  make  a  mortise  of  five  by 
two  and  a  half;  but  the  second  hole  is  bored  so  as  to  cut 
the  circumference  of  the  first,  to  lessen  the  chip  between 
the  two,  which  is  easily  removed  by  a  chisel  or  hatchet. 
The  rails  are  sharpened  by  a  circular  saw,  by  cutting 
one  side  so  that  when  two  rails  are  brought  together,  they 
just  fit  the  mortise.  The  lap  of  the  rails  is  about  six 
inches,  and  makes  a  neat  appearance  ;  additional  strength 
is  given  by  pinning  the  upper  rail.  If  rails  arc  cut  twelve 
feet  three  inches,  four  hundred  and  forty  panels  will  make 
a  mile  of  fence.  This  will  determine  the  number  of  posts 


88  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

which  are  inserted  in  a  furrow,  when  the  fence  is  to  be 
made  six  inches  deep,  before  the  ditch  is  commenced ; 
this  will  save  all  excavation  for  posts  by  hand,  and,  when 
the  embankment  is  formed,  the  posts  will  be  two  feet  in 
the  ground. 

If  the  team  can  travel  twelve  miles  per  day,  this  will 
give  six  passages  on  each  side  of  the  embankment,  and 
completes  one  mile  in  extent  in  a  day. 

I  will  give  an  estimate  of  fencing  different  quantities 
of  land.  The  size  and  shape  of  the  tract  materially  affect 
the  cost  per  acre. 

Two  teams,  $2  50  each,  one  day,  (one  with  plough  and  one 

with  scraper,) $5  00 

1,320  rails  sharpened  and  delivered,  at  Mr.  Robinson's  estimate, 

two  cents 26  40 

440  posts,  bored  complete,  three  cents 13  60 

Setting  posts  and  putting  in  rails,  five  days 5  00 

Cost  per  mile 50  00 

Add  for  contingencies  25  per  cent 12  50 

62  50 

1  section,  o*40  acres,  4  miles,  cost  $250  00,  per  acre $0  39 

i  „  320  „  3     „  „  187  50,  „  0  58$ 

\  „  160  „  2     „  „  125  00,  „  0  78 

J  „  80  „  1$  „  „  93  75,  „  1  17 

1-16  „  40  „  1     „  „  62  50,  „  1  56 

1-32  „  20  „  |    „  „  46  87,  „  2  39 

1-64  „  10  „  *     „  „  35  25,  „  3  12$ 

When  roads  or  unoccupied  land  do  not  adjoin,  the  ex- 
penses will  be  reduced,  since  adjoining  proprietors  are 
bound  to  pay  if  they  improve  one-half  the  value  of  the 
fence. 

This  estimate  is  made  from  common  prairie  land,  which 
is  not  more  than  three  miles  from  limber,  and  where  the 


89 

timber  is  good  for  splitting,  and  not  over  ten  dollars  per 
acre,  and  where  the  labor  of  mauling  rails  does  not  ex- 
eeed  seventy-five  cents  per  hundred. 

A  sketch  of  the  ditch,  rails,  fence,  scraper,  and  augers, 
is  given.  Augers  with  sliding  cutters  are  decidedly  pref- 
erable. See  plate  I,  figures  1  to  9. 

A  very  simple  machine  for  boring  posts  may  be  seen 
by  referring  to  figure  13,  plate  II.  It  may  be  constructed 
by  an  ordinary  laborer.  Between  the  uprights,  the  post 
to  be  bored  is  fastened.  The  auger  is  changed  by  raising 
the  piece  of  scantling  which  holds  down  the  same,  and 
runs  between  two  pieces  of  scantling  fastened  at  one  end 
by  a  hinge  of  leather  or  iron,  and  at  the  other  by  a  pin. 
The  holes  are  made  to  accommodate  the  wishes  of  the 
fence-maker,  as  to  the  number  and  distance  of  the  rails. 
A  2J  inch  auger  is  recommended,  as  this  with  two  holes 
will  make  a  mortise  five  by  two  and  and  a  half  inches. 
Any  ordinary  auger  will  answer,  if  a  crank  is  affixed  to 
the  same.  The  simplicity  and  utility  of  this  machine 
will  recommend  itself. 

PLATE   I. 

Fig.  1.  Fence. 

Fig.  2.  Rails  sharpened. 

Fig.  3.  Auger  with  cutters. 

Fig.  4.  Holes  bored. 

Fig.  5.  Post,  ditch,  and  embankment. 

Figs.  6  and  7.  Views  of  the  scraper. 

Figs.  8  and  9.  Views  of  the  plough. 

Fig.  10.  Surface  of  the  ground. 

PLATE    II. 

Fig.  10.  Cheap  wood  mill. 
Fig.  11.  End  view  of  iron  mill. 
Fig.  12.  Front  view  of  iron  mill, 
Fig.  13.  Post-boring  rnachiae. 


90 


THE    FARMER  S   AND 

PLATE  I. 
Figure  1. 


Figure  2. 


Figure  3.  Figure  5.          Figure  4. 


Figure  6 


THE    EMIGRANT  S    HAND-BOOK. 
Figure  8. 


Figure  9. 


• 


PLATE  II. 

Figure  10. 


THE  FARMER'S  AND 

Figure  11. 


Figure  12. 


• 


Figure  13. 


THE    EMIGRANT  S    HAND-HOOK.  93 

CHEAP  RAIL  FENCE,  FOR  LAND  NEWLY  CLEARED. 

As  soon  as  a  piece  of  land  is  chopped  and  cleared,  it 
must  be  fenced  in.  This  is  accomplished  by  splitting 
into  what  are  called  rails,  the  lengths  or  cuts — generally 
eleven  feet  long — of  black-ash,  cedar,  oak,  elm,  white- 
ash,  cherry,  or  basswood  ;  or,  when  handy,  poles  will  do 
in  part,  though  rails  are  the  best,  and  generally  used. 
Rails  made  from  the  pine,  maple,  and  beech,  the  two 
latter,  are  rarely  seen.  A  straight  fence  of  logs  is  some- 
times put  up,  being  logs  of  any  kind,  (about  from  ten  to 
fourteen  inches  in  diameter)  cut  into  lengths  of  twelve 
or  fourteen  feet.  The  rails  are  split  by  the  axe,  and 
iron  and  wooden  wedges,  with  a  large  mallet  or  maul 
made  of  wood.  Some  cuts,  depending  of  course  on  their 
freeness  (easiness  to  split)  and  size,  will  yield  from  ten 
to  fifty  rails  each.  The  rail  fence  is  built  in  a  zigzag 
manner,  as  follows: 


It  is  generally  laid  seven  rails  high,  each  rail  placed 
above  the  other,  and  crossing  at  the  corners,  with  one 
stake  planted  in  the  ground  in  the  inside,  and  one  on  the 
outside,  of  each  corner ;  and  on  these  stakes  are  placed 
riders,  r.nd  the  fence  thus  made  is  strong  and  steady. 
From  corner  to  corner  is  called  a  "panel."  Of  these 
rails,  and  seven  high — including  two  stakes,  and  two 
riders,  to  each  panel,  as  above  described — 100  rails  will 
lay  five  rods,  or  eighty-two  and  a  half  feet  of  a  fence, 
including  in  this  the  zigzag  ;  and  it  will  be,  to  the  top 
of  the  upper  rider,  above  six  feet  high.  Sometimes  in 
place  of  stakes  and  riders,  what  are  called  "  lockers" 


94 

are  put ;  but  this  method,  and  any  other  variation,  as  well 
as  log  fences,  will  be  best  known  on  the  spot.  The 
above  rail,  stake,  and  rider  fence  is  the  ordinary  one- 
We  need  not  refer  to  a  brush  fence,  to  protect  a  crop  of 
grain  or  potatoes,  as  it  is  not  worthy  the  consideration  of 
an  industrious  settler. 

FENCING  THE  PRAIRIES. 

BY   JAMES   T.   OIFFORD. 


When  a  new  settler  makes  a  beginning  on  the  prairie, 
the  first  object  that  calls  for  his  attention  is  fencing.  And 
the  first  objection  raised  by  an  eastern  man  to  the  prai- 
ries of  the  West  is,  that  there  is  not  sufficient  timber  for 
fencing.  Much  of  this  land  must  lie  unoocupi^J  for  gene- 
rations for  want  of  fencing.  Now,  Messrs.  Editors,  I  am 
about  to  submit  a  plan  by  which  the  amount  of  timber  we 
now  have,  may  be  rr^de  to  go  much  farther,  and  also  by 
which  good  fence  may  be  made  of  timber  raised  from  the 
seed,  or  transplanted,  in  a  few  years.  Having  tried  several 
experiments  within  the  last  five  years,  with  a  view  to  make 
the  greatest  amount  of  good  fence  from  a  given  quantity 
of  timber,  and  that  with  the  least  labor  ;  I  have  concluded 
that  the  following  plan  of  construction,  illustrated  by  the 
accompanying  model,  on  the  scale  of  one  and  a  half 
inches  to  the  foot,  is  decidedly  the  best  I  have  tried.  I 
make  the  fence  of  either  sawed  or  split  stuff.  Posts  and 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  95 

braces  about  five  feet  long,  and  from  two  to  three  inches 
by  five  in  size,  and  bars  from  six  to  eight  feet  in  length, 
and  from  one  to  one  and  a  half  inches  by  five  in  size.  The 
posts  are  mortised,  and  the  bars  fitted  similarly  to  the 
usual  manner  for  post  and  rail  fence,  except  that  one 
rail,  to  gt>  next  to  the  upper  one,  has  one  end  tenoned 
longer  than  the  others,  which  passes  through  the  upper 
end  of  the  brace  before  entering  the  post ;  the  brace  hav- 
ing its  lower  end  inserted  into  the  ground  about  eight 
inches  deep,  and  about  one  foot  and  a  half  from  the  line 
of  the  fence  ;  each  post  being  set  in  the  ground  about  four 
inches,  and  braced  alternately  on  each  side  ;  that  is,  one 
post  is  braced  from  one  side,  and  the  next  from  the  oppo- 
site side.  These  keep  the  fence  in  an  erect  position,  and 
sustain  it  against  any  pressure,  often  experienced  from 
wind  or  cattle.  I  have  fence  which  has  been  set  in  this 
manner  for  two  years  past,  and  it  stands  better  than  any  I 
have  ever  seen  with  posts  set  deep  in  the  ground.  Among 
the  advantages  of  this  kind  of  fence  are  the  following  : 
The  stuff  being  short,  much  timber  can  be  worked  into  it 
which  cannot  be  worked  into  ordinary  rails  ;  and  the 
fence  need  not*be  over  half  the  weight  of  common  fence, 
it  not  depending  on  its  weight  to  make  it  substantial,  and 
being  more  easily  split.  The  fence  will  also  stand  much 
longer,  as  where  posts  depend  upon  strength  at  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  and  become  old  and  partially  decayed,  the 
wind  or  the  crowding  of  cattle  is  apt  to  break  them  off; 
while  on  this  plan,  the  fence  being  braced  near  the  top, 
stands  firmly,  though  light ;  and  there  being  no  purchase 
upon  either  post  or  brace,  it  will  stand  erect  until  both 
are  completely  decayed. 

I  bore  the  posts  and  braces  with  a  machine  by  horse 
power,  and  tenon  the  rails  with  the  same.  With  this  ma- 
chine, fence  may  be  prepared  for  setting,  after  the  tim- 


90  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

her  is  split  or  sawed,  at  an  expense  of  one  shilling  per 
rod. 

Good  substantial  fence  may  be  seen  on  the  farm  of 
Hezekiah  Gifford,  at  Elgin,  made  from  locust  timber, 
which  he  has  grown  from  seed  planted  seven  years  ago 
last  May.  • 

O^T"  Mr.  Gifford  wishes  us  to  state,  what  he  failed  to 
do,  in  relation  to  the  size  of  the  timber  necessary  to  make 
the  fence  of  which  he  treats  in  this  number,  that  a  locust 
pole,  about  five  inches  through,  will  make  two  rails — be- 
ing split  through  the  centre.  His  object  is  to  convince 
farmers  tha-t  it  will  not  be  necessary  for  to  wait  fifteen  or 
twenty  years  for  rail  stuff  to  grow.  Locust  timber  is 
easy  to  work  and  split,  while  green  ;  but  when  seasoned 
is  little  less  hard  than  iron,  and  will  split  but  a  little 
easier — hence  it  is  very  valuable  for  fence,  when  it  is 
desirable  to  save  timber.  Mr.  Gifford  proposes  to  make 
the  lengths  of  his  fence  about  six  or  eight  feet. — From  the 
Prairie  Farmer. 

IMPROVED  MODE   OF  FENCING. 

While  the  cultivation  of  timber  land  will  be"  hastened 
by  the  new  method,  heretofore  described,  of  making  pot 
and  pearl  ashes,  where  the  preservation  of  wood  is  not  an 
object  of  interest,  an  improved  mode  of  fencing  the  prai- 
ries gives  great  facilities  for  converting  what  has  been 
hitherto  deemed  almost  waste  land  to  immediate  use  ;  and 
when  it  is  considered  that,  as  appears  by  an  estimate  made 
at  the  land-office,  there  are  in  four  States  and  two  Ter- 
ritories, 39,000,000  of  acres  of  prairie  lands,  viz:  in  Illi- 
nois 11,000,000  acres,  in  Indiana  5,000,000,  in  Missouri 
9,000,000,  in  Arkansas  4,000,000,  in  Wisconsin  and  Iowa, 
restricted  to  surveyed  lands  alone,  each,  5,000,000  acres, 
some  of  which  are  quite  remote  from  timber,  it  must  be 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  97 

matter  of  congratulation,  especially  from  those  States,  as 
also  to  the  United  States,  still  holding  portions,  to  know 
that  such  lands  can  now  be  inclosed  with  one-fourth  the 
expense  of  a  Virginia  fence.  Where  a  section  of  640 
acres  is  inclosed,  it  may  be  done  at  a  cost  not  exceeding 
forty  cents  per  acre,  where  the  labor  and  materials  are 
all  purchased.  The  fence  now  recommended  is  com- 
posed of  a  ditch  and  embankment  of  three  feet  high,  or  a 
fence  three  feet  high  on  the  top  of  the  embankment.  The 
hedge  fence  so  much  commended  in  Europe,  will  not  an- 
swer for  the  prairies,  as  the  weeds  grow  up  with  the  hedge, 
arid  thus  furnish  much  fuel  to  consume  the  hedge  in  its 
earlier  growth,  or  even  in  its  more  matured  condition ; 
and  this  will  be  the  case  until  general  cultivation  pro- 
tects the  prairie  from  annual  fires.  The  ditch,  too,  of 
itself  alone,  is  a  poor  defence  against  the  effect  of  frost, 
and  the  attacks  of  cattle.  A  combination  of  the  two 
seems  to  offer  all  the  advantages  of  both,  as  the  soil  is 
drained  by  the  ditch,  and  the  same  forms  in  p*art  the  fence, 
thus  saving  much  timber. 

It  requires  26,500  rails  to  inclose  a  section  of  land  with 
the  Virginia  panel  equal  to  eight  rails,  stake  and  rider, 
whereas,  it  takes  only  three  rails  for  a  panel  on  the  plan 
of  the  ditch  and  embankment ;  nor  is  this  all.,  the  rails  on 
the  embankment  need  not  be  over  one  half  the  size  of 
those  in  a  Virginia  or  worm  fence.  The  great  saving 
will  be  apparent  when  we  reflect,  that  four  panels  of 
Virginia  fence  are  equal  in  distance  to  three  panels  of 
fence  made  straight.  Three  rails  on  the  embankment  are 
sufficient.  Hence,  nine  rails  on  the  latter  plan  are  equal 
to  forty  on  the  former  one  ;  and  when  the  difference  in 
the  size  are  taken  into  consideration,  the  proportion  will 
not  be  over  four  and  a  half  to  forty,  making  a  saving  in 
timber,  carting  and  hauling,  etc.  almost  incredible.  In 

5 


98  THE  FARMER'S 

the  success  of  such  a  plan,  the  United  States  are  deeply 
interested  ;  for  it  must  add  millions  of  dollars  to  the 
treasury,  besides  enhancing  the  value  of  land  now  likely 
to  remain  a  long  time  without  improvement,  and  saving 
from  destruction  the  vast  quantities  of  timber  which  the 
inclosure  of  the  prairie  in  the  ordinary  mode  of  fencing 
would  require.  This  plan,  having  been  made  the  sub- 
ject of  great  attention,  and  found  to  answer  the  purpose, 
can  be  safely  recommended.  The  machinery  to  accom- 
plish all  this  as  described  will  not  exceed  $10,  and  may 
be  constructed  by  ordinary  workmen.  Drawings  of  the 
plough  and  scraper,  and  the  machinery  of  its  construction, 
with  a  description  in  full  of  the  manner  of  making  the 
fence,  will  be  found  in  Document  No.  13.  A  model,  also, 
of  full  size,  of  both  the  fence  as  standing  and  the  various 
machinery,  may  be  seen  at  the  patent-office.  A  letter 
from  a  gentleman  at  the  West,  (see  Document  No.  14,) 
fully  sustains  the  above  opinion  of  its  practicability. 

RAIL  FENCE. 

In  many  parts  of  the  country,  where  rocks  are  not 
plenty,  farmers  are  obliged  to  make  wooden  fences,  and 
the  time  of  cutting  them  is  important.  Posts,  in  particu- 
lar, in  some  kinds  of  soil,  are  very  expensive,  as  they 
require  to  be  renewed  once  in  four  or  five  years.  In 
clayey  ground,  they  will  stand  a  dozen  years,  and  in  wet 
meadows  fifty.  When  posts  are  used,  they  should  never 
be  put  in  the  ground  in  a  green  state,  notwithstanding 
they  will  last  longest  in  wet  ground.  Constant  wet  from 
water  will  not  hurt  them,  but  the  fermentation  of  the 
natural  aap  in  the  wood  is  injurious.  When  posts  with 
three  rails  are  wanted,  it  is  good  economy  to  purchase  or 
make  them  a  foot  longer  than  the  common  length,  so  as 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  99 

to  admit  of  their  being  sharpened  at  each  end.  They 
will  last  twice  as  long  when  so  cut;  and  they  cost  but 
a  trifle  more  than  the  common  kind. 

Posts  are  so  liable  to  rot,  and  break  off,  that  in  some 
parts  of  the  country,  where  timber  is  plenty,  crooked  or 
worm  fences  are  made  of  rails  without  posts.  An  obtuse 
angle  is  made  in  each  length  of  the  fence,  and  the  rails 
are  placed  one  upon  another  as  children  build  cob  houses  ; 
the  smallest  rails  being  placed  at  the  bottom,  and  the 
largest  at  the  top ;  five  rails  are  thus  placed  one  upon 
the  other.  When  heavy  rails  are  placed  at  the  top,  they 
will  often  remain  in  place  without  staking  up ;  but  it  is 
more  common  to  set  a  pair  of  stakes  at  each  angle,  and 
tie  them  together  at  the  top,  with  a  withe  or  a  little  yoke. 
The  Virginians  have  very  generally  used  their  rails  in 
this  manner  ;  and  at  the  north  it  is  called  Virginia  fence. 

In  speaking  of  the  importance  of  letting  timber  for 
posts  become  dry,  before  it  is  put  into  the  ground,  we 
ought  also  to  name  in  connection  with  it,  the  importance 
of  suffering  the  sills  of  a  house  and  other  buildings,  to 
become  dry  before  they  are  used.  It  is  true  we  now  set 
buildings  higher  than  we  formerly  did,  and  we  take 
smaller  timber  for  sills,  and  both  these  practices  tend  to 
favor  the  durability  of  the  timber — yet  we  are  often 
obliged  to  put  in  new  sills ;  and  this  labor  may  be  saved. 
In  ancient  times,  the  largest  sticks  of  timber  that  could 
be  found  were  placed  at  the  bottom,  on  the  principles  of 
pyramid  building  :  it  seems  to  have  been  supposed  that 
this  gave  the  building  strength.  And  it  is  not  uncom- 
mon to  find,  on  pulling  down  an  ancient  meeting-house, 
sills  twelve  inches  square.  There  was  not  only  no  need 
of  such  timbers  in  such  a  position,  but  they  were  not 
worth  half  as  much  as  timbers  half  their  size.  When 
the  building  was  set  low,  the  sill  would  never  become 


300  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

dry,  and  the  sap  would  ferment  in  it,  until  it  would 
cause  decay.  Many  of  these  old  houses  are  found  to 
have  rotten  sills.  A  stick  of  timber  eight  inches  square 
is  better  for  any  building,  as  a  sill,  than  a  stick  twelve 
inches  square  ;  and  the  first  has  not  half  the  number  of 
square  inches. 

SOW  BLUE  GRASS  ON  YOUR  BANK  FENCE. 
One  of  the  reasons  why  sod  fence  will  stand  no  better, 
is  owing  to  the  fact,  that  the  turf  made  by  the  wild  grass 
is  not  sufficiently  tenacious  at  the  surface.  The  roots  ot 
it  are  tough,  but  are  very  large  and  long.  The  great 
proportion  of  them  are  perpendicular,  and  not  lateral  or 
horizontal.  Consequently,  although  they  form  a  very 
strong  turf,  it  is  not  a  turf  which  holds  the  earth  well, 
when  there  is  any  chance  for  the  rain  to  act  upon  it. 
Blue  grass,  on  the  contrary,  forms  a  very  thick  turf  at 
the  surface,  which  is  precisely  the  place  wanted  by  the 
covering  of  a  sod  fence.  The  winter  is  a  good  time  to 
sow  the  seed,  particularly  on  the  snow,  if  there  should 
be  any. 

WHITEWASH  YOUR  COTTAGES. 
Log  houses  pointed  with  lime,  though  apparently  tight, 
admit  much  wind  and  water,  in  consequence  of  the  logs 
seasoning  and  shrinking  from  the  lime,  or  the  lime  be- 
coming  loose  from  the  logs.  To  make  them  tight,  apply 
whitewash  as  thick  as  can  be  laid  on,  which  will  fill  the 
small  cracks  and  cement  the  loose  mortar  to  the  logs. 
Salt  should  be  put  in  the  water  before  slaking  the  lime 
in  it,  which  is  said  to  make  it  hard  and  durable.  Skim- 
milk  or  glue,  is  also  thought  to  be  useful. 

HEN  HOUSES. 
If  you  wish  a  hen-house  that  will  keep  your  fowls  safe 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  101 

from  their  foes,  winged  or  four-footed,  elevate  it  on  posts 
two  and  ti  half  or  three  feet  above  the  ground,  with  a  hole 
underneath  through  the  floor,  for  them  to  enter.  No  animal 
will  jump  up  into  it,  or  owl  or  hawk  find  the  way  in.  I  have 
known  flocks  of  hens  destroyed  in  a  few  nights  by  the 
mink,  in  roosts  built  upon  the  ground,  in  the  ordinary 
manner. 

BUILD  BARNS. 

A  barn  will  pay  for  itself  in  about  two  years — in  this 
way  :  you  save  ten  dollars  worth  of  manure,  you  save 
twenty  dollars  worth  of  fodder,  and  you  save  about  fifty 
dollars  worth  of  grain  from  rotting  and  wasting  from  being 
threshed  on  the  ground,  in  a  year.  In  two  years  this 
amounts  tonne  hundred  and  sixty  dollars,  which  will  build 
a  barn  thirty  feet  by  forty.  Not  only  this,  it  adds  a  great 
deal  to  the  comfort  oi  your  stock  to  be  kept  in  a  warm 
barn,  in  a  cold  winter  night.  Neither  does  it  require  so 
much  fodder  for  your  cattle  when  they  are  kept  warm, 
which  is  another  great  saving. 

ICE  HOUSES. 

There  is  an  indifferent,  good,  better,  and  best  way  of 
doing  everything  ;  and  judging  from  the  success  of  ice- 
keepers,  we  should  suppose  the  mode  of  constructing  ice- 
houses had  not  uniformly  been  adopted  in  this  country. 
It  is  very  often  the  case,  that  ice  is  not  kept  beyond  mid- 
summer. This  is  owing,  in  every  instance,  to  the  want 
of  requisite  information  in  building  houses  of  materials 
which  are  not  too  great  conductors  of  heat.  In  beginning 
to  build,  it  is  not  only  necessary  to  "  count  the  cost,"  but 
it  is  very  important  for  every  one  to  ask  himself,  what  he 
wishes  to  accomplish  before  he  commences,  lest  his  labor 
be  lost.  The  common  plan  is,  to  dig  in  the  earth  some 


102  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

eight  or  ten  feet,  and  build  a  house  from  the  bottom,  ex- 
tending  from  four  to  ten  feet  above  the  surface.  The 
earth  and  all  the  materials,  on  this  plan,  are  too  swift 
conductors  of  heat  to  completely  secure  the  ice.  *  The 
better  plan  is  to  construct  a  building  entirely  above  ground. 
One  house  should  be  built  in  another,  the  walls  being 
eighteen  or  twenty  inches  asunder,  and  this  space  filled 
with  pulverized  charcoal  or  tan  bark.  The  floor  should 
be  filled  some  twelve  or  fifteen  inches,  and  a  layer  of  tan 
bark  thrown  over  it  to  the  depth  of  a  few  inches.  This 
kind  of  a  floor  will  completely  absorb  the  moisture  and 
keep  the  air  dry.  Rye  straw  makes  an  excellent  roof. 
No  matter  how  coarse  and  cheap  the  materials  are.  A 
good  ice-house  may  be  built  of  logs. 


THE    DAIRY: 

COMPRISING 

THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  COWS, 

MAKING  OF    BUTTER, 
MAKING  OF  VARIOUS  KINDS  OF  CHEESE, 

THE   CARE  OF  A  DAIRY, 

JMC.   ETC.   ETO. 


CHAPTER     V. 

THE    DAIRY. 

IN  this  department,  we  shall  present  such  hints  and  in- 
structions  as  are  entitled  to  entire  confidence.  All  that 
follows  has  been  gathered  from  the  best  possible  sources. 

MILKING  COWS. 

The  owners  of  cows  should  pay  particular  attention  to 
milking.  Children  should  not  be  trusted  with  this  busi- 
ness, and  there  are  many  grown  people  who  never  milk 
well,  though  they  have  been  brought  up  to  the  business. 

If  you  would  obtain  all  the  milk  from  the  cow,  you  must 
treat  her  with  the  utmost  gentleness  ;  she  must  not  stand 
trembling  under  your  blows  nor  under  your  threats.  She 
may  at  times  need  a  little  chastisement,  but  at  such  times 
you  need  not  expect  all  her  milk. 

Soon  after  the  bag  has  been  brushed  by  your  hand,  and 
the  ends  of  the  teats  have  been  moistened  a  little  with 
milk,  it  flows  in  rapidly,  and  all  the  veins  or  ducts  near 
the  teats  are  completely  filled.  Then  it  must  be  drawn 
out  immediately  or  you  will  not  get  the  wkole.  You  must 
not  sit  and  talk — you  must  not  delay  one  moment,  if  you 
would  have  all  the  cow  is  then  ready  to  yield. 

The  udder  should  be  moved  in  every  direction  at  the 

close  of  milking,  and  the  hands  may  beat  it  a  little,  in 

imitation  of  the  beating  which  the  calf  gives  it  when  he 

is  sucking.      An  expert  milker  will  make  the  cow  give 

5* 


106 

one  quarter  more  in  butter  than  a  majority  of  grown  milk- 
ers will. 

One  season,  at  Framingham,  says  an  experienced  writer, 
we  kept  four  cows  in  the  home  lot;  there  was  but  little 
difference  in  the  quantity  of  milk  given  by  each.  We 
had  a  very  steady  hired  man  of  forty  years  of  age  ;  he  had 
carried  on  a  farm  in  New-Hampshire,  and  had  always 
been  used  to  milking ;  but  he  was  so  slow  the  cows  had 
no  patience  with  him. 

We  milked  two  of  the  cows  and  he  the  other  two,  and 
we  were  but  little  more  than  half  as  long  as  he  in  milk- 
ing, though  we  got  the  largest  mess  by  about  one  quart. 
On  our  remonstrating,  that  he  did  not  draw  out  all  the 
milk,  he  said  his  cows  would  not  yield  so  much  as  those 
milked  by  us.  We  then  made  an  exchange  ;  he  milked 
our  two,  and  we  milked  his.  In  three  weeks  time  the 
case  was  reversed  ;  our  mess  exceeded  his  by  nearly  one 
quart.  He  never  failed  to  strip  his  cows  to  the  last  drop  ; 
but  his  intolerable  moderation  prevented  his  obtaining  what 
an  active  milker  would  have  done. 

Young  learners  may  practice  on  cows  that  are  soon  to 
be  dried  off.  They  should  be  taught  at  first  how  to  take 
hold  of  the  teats,  and  they  will  remember  it ;  but  how 
common  it  is  to  let  each  child  choose  his  own  mode  of 
milking  !  Learners  should  know  that  the  hand  should  be 
kept  very  near  the  extremity  of  the  teat,  if  they  would 
milk  with  ease.  The  left  arm  should  always  press  gently 
against  the  leg  of  the  cow  ;  for  if  she  is  inclined  to  kick, 
she  cannot,  with  any  force  ;  she  cannot  strike  an  object 
that  leans  against  her ;  but  if  she  raises  up  her  foot,  as 
she  often  will  when  her  teats  are  sore,  the  milker  will  be 
ready  to  ward  off  and  keep  it  from  the  pail,  much  better 
than  when  he  sits  far  off  from  the  cow. 

If  heifers  are  made  tame  and  gentle  by  frequent  hand. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  107 

ling  when  they  are  young,  they  are  not  apt  to  kick  the 
milker;  their  udders  should  be  rubbed  gently  before 
calving;  it  is  quite  as  grateful  to  them  as  carding.  But 
if  they  are  suffered  to  run  wild  till  after  they  have  calved, 
they  cannot  be  expected  to  be  gentle  when  you  first  at- 
tempt  to  milk  them  :  they  often  acquire  bad  habits,  and  are 
not  broken  of  them  through  life. 

BUTTER-MAKING  IN  ORANGE  COUNTY 

THE  MILK-ROOM. — It  is  all-important  that  this  should 
be  cool,  dry,  and  moderately  light,  with  a  free  circulation 
of  air.     Mine,  says  a  Duchess  county  writer,  is  in  the 
cellar  of  my   farm-house,   ventilated   by  means  of  two 
windows  about  two  feet  square  on  the  north  side,  and 
a  like  window,  and  a  lattice-door  on  the  south  side ;  all 
covered   on    the  outside    with    wire-gauze,   fine    enough 
to  exclude  the  flies.     The  floor  is  formed  by  a   layer 
of  small   stones,  six  inches  deep,  well  grouted,  (that  is, 
a  mortar  of  lime  and  sand,  thin  enough  to  run  freely, 
is  poured  upon  the  stones  until  they   are  entirely  cov- 
ered  with  it,)  and   when  dry,  a  thin   covering  of  water- 
lime  cement  is  put  upon  it,  and  made  smooth  with  the 
trowel.     This  costs  little,  if  any  more  than  a  plank  floor, 
and  effectually  keeps  out  both  rats  and   mice ;  and  as 
water  does  not  injure  it,  it  is  easily  kept  perfectly  clean 
and  sweet.     The   milk-pans  stand   upon    marble  slabs, 
raised  upon  brick-work,   about  two  feet  from  the  floor, 
and  the  butter  is  worked  upon  a  marble  table.     A  pump 
is  placed  at  one  end  of  the  room,  bringing  the   water 
through  a  lead  pipe  from  the  bottom  of  the  well  ;  and  the 
water  discharged,  runs  the  whole  length  of  the  cellar  in 
a  channel  prepared  for  the  purpose,  when  the  floor  was 
cemented,  and  escapes  through  a  fine  iron  grate,  cemented 
into  the  floor,  over  the  mouth  of  the  drain.     The  churn 


108  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

slands  in  the  milk-room,  and  is  worked  by  a  dog-power 
machine,  on  the  outside  of  the  building.  The  milk-room 
should  be  used  exclusively  for  dairy  purposes. 

DAIRY  UTENSILS.— The  cows  are  milked  into  wooden 
pails,  not  painted  on  the  inside,  and  kept  perfectly  sweet. 
They  must  be  thoroughly  cleansed,  dried,  and  aired, 
morning  and  evening ;  and  never  be  used  for  any  other 
purpose.  The  pans  should  be  shallow,  with  sides  much 
more  slanting  than  the  usual  pattern  of  pans  which  we 
see  at  the  tin-shops,  and  be  kept  as  bright  as  silver ;  they 
also  must  be  well  aired  in  the  sun. 

THE  MILK. — This  must  stand  in  the  pans,  undisturbed, 
until  the  whole  of  the  cream  has  risen  ;  (some  of  our  best 
dairy-women  say  until  it  is  "  loppered,"  or  thick,)  both 
milk  and  cream  are  then  put  into  the  churn  together,  at  a 
temperature  of  about  fifty-five  of  Fahrenheit ;  the  churn 
is  then  worked  with  a  rapid  stroke,  say  from  60  to  75  per 
minute,  until  the  butter  "  begins  to  come,"  when  the  brake 
is  put  upon  the  wheel,  and  the  churn  is  worked  more  and 
more  moderately,  until  the  butter  is  entirely  separated 
from  the  buttermilk.  Upon  taking  the  butter  from  the 
churn,  it  is  washed  with  cold  water,  salted,  and  thoroughly 
worked  with  a  wooden  ladle,  upon  the  marble  table.  It 
must  never  be  worked  with  the  hand,  as  the  warmth  of 
the  hand  will  injure  it.  It  is  then  set  aside  in  a  cool  place, 
until  the  next  day,  when  it  is  again,  in  like  manner, 
worked  until  every  drop  of  the  buttermilk  is  extracted. 
It  is  then  fit  for  packing  away,  or  for  use.  The  butter 
must  at  no  time  be  allowed  to  get  soft. 

CHURNING  MACHINE. 

BY  JAS.  M.  THOMAS. 

A,  fly-wheel,  may  be  made  of  oak  plank  or  any  heavy 
timber.  C,  lever  to  which  the  churn  dash  is  attached. 


THE    EMIGRANT'S    HAND-BOOK. 


109 


D,  gearing,  which  may  be  common  fanning-mill  gearing. 
F,  pitman  which  communicates  the  motion  of  the  crank 
E  to  the  lever  C,  which  is  attached  to  the  back  part  of 
the  frame  G.  The  crank  should  be  three  inches  from 
centre,  so  that  it  may  perform  a  circle  of  six  inches.  By 
attaching  this  machine  to  dog  or  sheep-power,  cog-wheels 
will  be  unnecessary,  as  the  shaft  of  a  sheep  or  dog-power 
may  be  fastened  to  the  crank.  The  cost  of  this  machine 
is  $6,  without  the  churn.  These  machines  are  of  my  in- 
vention and  construction,  and  are  not  patented. 
Wyoming  Stark  Co.,  111.,  Feb.  17,  1844. 

VERMONT  BUTTER. 

The  county  of  Caledonia,  in  Vermont,  has  long  been 
celebrated  for  its  dairies,  and  its  butter  and  cheese  have 
frequently  taken  large  prizes  at  Agricultural  fairs. 

In  the  dairy  of  Mr.  W.  Backop,  who  has  obtained  five 
premiums  at  Boston,  for  butter  ;  two  of  $100  each,  and 
three  of  $50  each  ;  the  milk  in  warm  weather  stands 
thirty  hours  before  the  cream  is  taken  from  it;  and  in 
cold  weather,  forty-eight  hours.  In  the  hot  season,  in 
this  dairy,  six  pounds  of  salt  are  allowed  to  one  hundred 
pounds  of  butter,  and  in  cold  weather  four  pounds.  No 


110  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

saltpetre  is  used,  but  about  a  pound  of  finely  powdered 
loaf-sugar  is  sprinkled  into  each  hundred  pounds  of  butter. 

The  cream  is  churned  in  the  old-fashioned  wooden  hand 
churn,  worked  in  cold  water,  which  is  repeatedly  drained 
off  until  the  buttermilk  entirely  disappears.  It  is  then 
packed  in  firkins,  which  hold  from  thirty  to  fifty  pounds. 
It  is  packed  so  as  to  be  very  solid,  and  the  surface  of  the 
butter  in  the  firkin  is  covered  with  a  thin  white  cloth, 
over  which  fine  salt  is  spread. 

Caledonia  butter  always  commands  a  high  price  in 
market*  The  summer  yield  of  butter  from  one  common 
cow,  varies  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
five  pounds  each,  taking  an  average  of  heifers  and  cows. 

O^T"  It  is  important  that  every  particle  of  buttermilk  be 
worked  out.  But  it.  is  equally  important  that  the  butter  be 
not  overworked,  as  it  leaves  it  tough,  and  stringy,  and 
sticky. 

The  importance  of  making  good  butter  is  so  great,  that 
no  apology  is  necessary  for  subjoining  the  statements  ot 
some  celebrated  butter-makers,  as  recorded  in  the  trans- 
actions of  the  New- York  Stale  Agricultural  Society. 
Much  valuable  information  will  be  gained,  by  carefully 
reading  them. 


1.  The  number  of  cows  kept  is  ten. 

2.  Keep  them  stabled  through  the  inclement  season  ; 
feed  them  from  three  to  four  times  per  day  with  good  hay 
or  green   stalks ;   when   near  coming  in,  add  some  oats, 
barley,  or  corn  cracked.     In  summer,  good  pasture,  with 
living  water  accessible  at  all  times,  and  plenty  of  salt. 

3.  Treatment  of  milk   and  cream    before    churning. 
Strain  the  milk  in  tin  pans  ;  place  them  in  a  cool  cellar 
for  the  cream  to  rise.     When  sufficiently  risen,  separate 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  Ill 

the  cream  from  the  milk  ;  put  it  in  stone  jars,  well  pre- 
pared, before  churning. 

4.  The  mode  of  churning  in  summer.     Rinse  the  churn 
with  cold  water  ;  then  turn  in  the  cream,  and  add  to  each 
jar  of  cream  put  in  the  churn  full  one-fourth  of  the  same 
quantity  of  cold  water.     The  churn  used  is  a  patent  one, 
moved  by  hand  with  a  crank,  having  paddles  attached, 
and  so  constructed  as  to  warm  the  milk,  if  too  cold,  with 
hot  water,  without  mixing  them  together.     The  milk  and 
cream  receive  the  same  treatment  in  winter  as  in  summer  ; 
and  in  churning,  use  hot  instead  of  cold  water,  if  neces- 
sary. 

5.  The  method  of  freeing  the  butter  from  the  milk,  is 
to  wash  the  butter  with  cold  water  till  it  shows  no  color  of 
the  milk,  by  the  use  of  a  ladle. 

6.  Salting  of  the  butter.     Use  the  best  kind  of  Liver- 
pool sack  salt ;  the  quantity  varies  according  to  the  state 
in  which  the  butter  is  taken  from  the  churn  ;  if  soft,  more, 
if  hard,  less,  always  taking  the  taste  for  the  surest  guide. 
Add  no  saltpetre,  nor  other  substances. 

7.  The  best  time  for  churning  is  the  morning,  in  hot 
weather,  and  to  keep  the  butter  cool  till  put  down. 

8.  The  best  mode  of  preserving  butter  in  and  through 
the  summer  and  winter,  is  as  follows :  The  vessel  is  a 
stone  jar,  clean  and  sweet.     The  mode  of  putting  it  down 
is  to  put  in  a  churning  of  butter,  and  put  on  strong  brine  ; 
let  it  remain  on  until  the  next  churning  is  ready  to  put 
down,  and  so  on  till  the  jar  is  filled ;  then  cover  it  over 
with  fine  salt,  the  same  to  remain  on  till  used. 

JACOB  T.  LANSING. 

Watervliet,  Jan.,  1842. 


112  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

MR.  MERRIFIELD'S  STATEMENT. 

Number  of  cows.     Eight. 

Mode  of  keeping.  In  pasture,  in  summer ;  on  hay, 
straw  and  roots,  in  winter. 

Treatment  of  cream  and  milk.  Milk  strained  into  tin 
pans,  and  placed  in  the  cellar. 

Mode  of  churning.  The  cream  only  churned,  in  a 
Dutch  churn. 

Method  of  freeing  the  butter  from  the  milk.  By  pres- 
sure. 

Quantity  and  kind  of  salt.  Liverpool  sack,  one  ounce 
to  the  pound. 

Best  time  of  churning.     Morning,  in  summer. 

Best  mode  of  keeping.  In  the  cellar,  in  summer,  in 
wood. 

In  winter,  our  milk  stands  twelve  hours  ;  is  then  re- 
moved to  the  stove,  and  scalded  over  a  slow  fire  to  near 
boiling  heat ;  the  pans  removed  to  the  cellar  to  cool ;  the 
cream  only  churned.  The  butter,  placed  in  the  coldest 
part  of  the  house,  will  keep  good  any  length  of  time. 

WILLIAM  MERRIF1ELD. 

Guilderland,  Jan.,  1842. 


To  the  Committee  for  the  Examination  of  Butter : 

In  submitting  to  your  consideration  the  following  report, 
I  would  remark,  that  at  the  time  of  my  leaving  home,  I 
had  no  intention  of  entering  the  list  of  competitors,  and 
that  the  tub  of  butter  exhibited  for  your  inspection  was 
manufactured  without  any  reference  whatever  to  this  ex- 
hibition ;  was  made  during  my  absence  from  home,  in  our 
ordinary  way  of  making  butter.  My  soil,  part  sand, 
heavy  pine  ridge,  on  which  clover  grows  luxuriantly,  and 
part  black  loam,  a.nd  part  clay,  nearly  equal  in  propor- 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  113 

tion,  sloping  westwardly.  With  the  exception  of  five  or 
six  weeks  in  the  season,  water  may  be  found  plenty  in  my 
pastures ;  during  the  dry  seasons,  my  cows  have  access 
to  water  morning  and  evening,  and  at  midday,  if  they 
choose.  My  hours  for  milking  are  very  regular,  viz: 
commencing  at  early  light  in  the  morning,  and  in  time 
to  get  through  before  dark  in  the  evening.  My  dairy 
numbers  twenty  cows,  seven  of  which  were  milked  for 
the  first  time  this  season  ;  their  age  three  years  old ;  the 
ages  of  the  remainder  average  from  five  to  ten  years.  I 
fattened  all  my  calves  to  the  age  of  six  weeks.  The  lat- 
ter part  of  winter,  and  through  the  spring,  my  cows  are 
fed  about  one  peck  of  ruta-bagas  each  ;  salted  regularly 
once  a  week  in  winter,  and  twice  in  summer.  I  think 
salting  regularly,  as  often  as  above  stated,  to  be  very  es- 
sential, as  conducive  to  good  health ;  and  during  the 
milking  season,  it  tends  to  produce  a  uniformity  in  the 
quantity  of  milk,  and  in  my  estimation  adds,  in  no  small 
degree,  to  the  quality  of  the  milk.  The  average  product 
of  my  cows  this  season  is  100  Ibs.  per  cow,  besides  what 
I  have  used  in  a  family  of  from  eight  to  ten  persons.  My 
milk-house  is  what  is  termed  a  plank  building,  clap- 
boarded  ;  ceiled  about  three  feet  from  the  floor ;  the  re- 
mainder of  the  room  lathed  and  plastered.  My  shelves 
about  six  inches  wide  and  five  between,  so  constructed  as 
to  admit  a  free  circulation  of  air.  My  buildings  are  on  a 
rise  of  ground  of  sufficient  height,  so  as  not  to  require 
drains  to  my  cellars.  1  have  a  cellar  under  my  milk- 
house  the  entire  size  of  my  building,  with  wall  of  round 
stone,  laid  without  mortar,  to  the  depth  of  six  feet.  In  the 
centre  of  the  building,  I  have  a  place  about  three  feet 
square,  to  admit  the  cool  air  from  the  cellar,  over  which 
I  have  a  table,  where  the  milk  is  strained,  butter  worked, 
etc.  The  milk  I  require  to  be  strained  as  soon  as  pos- 


114 

sible  after  milking,  in  tin  pans,  about  three  quarts  to  each 
pan  ;  it  stands  until  the  milk  is  slightly  turned,  the  time 
required  depending  on  the  temperature  of  the  weather. 

Churning  performed  every  day,  (Sundays  excepted.) 
I  would  here  remark,  when  cows  are  regularly  salted, 
as  I  have  before  stated,  I  have  never  known  an  instance 
of  any  extreme  difficulty  in  obtaining  butter.  After  it  is 
obtained,  it  is  immediately  taken  from  the  buttermilk,  all 
the  milk  worked  off  that  is  practicable  at  the  time,  (which 
in  some  respect  depends  upon  the  temperature  of  the 
weather,)  salted  to  the  taste,  and  placed  in  a  cool  cellar 
until'the  next  day,  when  the  buttermilk  is  entirely  worked 
out  by  the  use  of  a  ladle,  and  then  packed  solid  in  tubs. 

The  kind  of  salt  I  use  is  obtained  in  Albany,  and  goes 
by  the  name  of  sack  salt,  sold  in  parcels  weighing  from 
200  to  300  Ibs.  After  the  tub  is  filled,  the  butter  is  kept 
covered  with  brine  sufficient  to  keep  the  air  entirely  ex- 
cluded, especially  that  made  during  the  warm  part  of  the 
season.  My  tubs  are  placed  in  the  coolest  part  of  my 
cellar.  Butter  made  and  protected  in  this  way,  [  have 
no  hesitation  in  saying,  will  keep  sweet  one,  two,  or  three 
years. 

CHARLES  LYON. 

Oswegatchie,  St.  Lawrence  Co.,  Jan.,  1842. 

REPORTS  ON  CHEESE. 


Number  of  cows  kept,  eleven.  Cheese  made  from  two 
milkings,  in  the  English  manner ;  no  addition  made  of 
cream.  For  a  cheese  of  twenty  pounds,  a  piece  of  rennet, 
about  two  inches  square,  is  soaked  about  twelve  hours  in 
one  pint  of  water.  As  rennets  differ  much  in  quality, 
enough  should  be  used  to  coagulate  the  milk  sufficiently 
in  about  forty  minutes.  No  salt  is  put  into  the  cheese, 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  115 

nor  any  on  the  outside  during  the  first  six  or  eight  hours 
it  is  being  pressed  ;  but  a  thin  coat  of  fine  Liverpool  salt 
is  kept  on  the  outside  during  the  remainder  of  the  time  it 
remains  in  press.  The  cheeses  are  pressed  forty-eight 
hours,  under  a  pressure  of  seven  or  eight  cwt.  Nothing 
more  is  required  but  to  turn  the  cheeses  once  a  day  on 
the  shelves. 

H.  P.  &  G.  ALLEN. 

Duanesburgh,  Jan.  17,  1842. 

MR.  MARVIN'S  STATEMENT. 

The  milk  strained  in  large  tubs  over  night  ;  the  cream 
stirred  in  milk,  and  in  morning  strained  in  same  tub  ; 
milk  heated  to  natural  heat  ;  add  color  and  rennet  ;  curd 
broke  fine  and  whey  off,  and  broke  fine  in  hoop  with  fast 
bottom,  and  put  in  strainer  ;  pressed  twelve  hours  ;  then 
taken  from  hoop,  and  salt  rubbed  on  the  surface  ;  then 
put  in  hoop,  without  strainer,  and  pressed  forty-eight 
hours  ;  then  put  on  tables,  and  salt  rubbed  on  surface, 
and  remain  in  salt  six  days,  for  cheese  weighing  thirty 
pounds.  The  crushings  are  saved,  and  set  and  churned, 
to  grease  the  cheese.  The  above  method  is  for  making 
one  cheese  per  day. 


Cooperstown,  January,  1842. 

MR.  HARDY'S  STATEMENT. 

The  number  of  cows  kept  is  thirty-eight.  Cheese  made 
from  two  milkings  —  no  addition  of  cream.  The  quantity 
of  salt  used  was  one  teacup-full  to  twenty  pounds  of  curd, 
of  common  Onondaga  salt.  The  rennet  was  prepared  by 
soaking  one  rennet  in  a  jar  of  five  or  six  quarts  filled  with 
salt  and  water.  From  one  pint  to  one  quart  was  used, 
according  to  the  strength  of  the  rennet.  The  cheeses 


116  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

were  pressed  in  a  common  wheel  and  lever  press,  and 
pressed  two  days.  The  cheeses  were  taken  from  the 
press,  and  rubbed  with  annatto,  soaked  in  strong  ley ; 
then  rubbed  with  whey  butter,  and  turned  and  rubbed 
daily  through  the  season  with  the  same. 

PHINEAS  HARDY. 

Le  Ray,  Jefferson  Co.,  Jan.  10,  1842. 

CHEESE  MAKING. 

Mr.  A.  F.  Bill,  in  the  October  number  of  the  New 
Genesee  Farmer,  says : — "  In  the  morning  take  off  the 
cream  with  a  skimmer,  and  put  it  in  a  vessel  by  itself; 
then  warm  the  milk,  or  a  part  of  it,  over  a  slow  fire  till 
about  blood  heat ;  then  pour  in  the  cream,  and  stir  it 
moderately  till  there  are  no  particles  to  be  seen  floating 
upon  the  surface." 

It  seems  to  me  evident,  that  when  the  cream  is  once 
separated  from  the  milk,  it  can  never  be  so  thoroughly 
incorporated  with  it  again,  as  to  set  the  milk  as  soon  as 
taken  from  the  cow. 

Our  method  is  this :  Immediately  after  the  cows  are 
milked  at  night,  (and  the  quicker  the  operation  is  per- 
formed the  better,)  we  strain  it  into  the  cheese- tub  and 
put  in  the  rennet — as  the  milk  when  it  first  comes  from 
the  cow  is  in  precisely  the  right  temperature  to  set.  If  the 
rennet  is  good,  and  properly  prepared,  a  lare  table-spoon- 
ful is  sufficient  for  a  pail-full  of  milk.  The  tub  should 
then  be  covered  with  a  cloth  and  allowed  to  stand  undis- 
turbed— in  about  forty  minutes  it  will  coagulate.  It  is 
then  carefully  cut,  the  tub  again  covered  and  left  to  stand 
till  morning.  When  the  tub  is  wanted  for  the  morning's 
milk,  the  night's  curd  is  dipped  into  the  cheese- basket,  or 
cheese-sink,  to  drain,  and  the  morning's  milk  strained 
into  the  same  tub.  The  rennet  is  then  put  on,  going 
through  the  same  process  as  with  the  night's  milk. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  117 

When  sufficiently  drained,  the  two  curds  are  ready  to  be 
put  together,  scalded  and  salted  according  to  the  discre- 
tion of  the  maker. 

Those  who  have  had  the  least  experience  in  the  man- 
agement of  milk,  must  know  that  warming  it  after  it  has 
once  cooled,  gives  it  a  tendency  to  sour  the  quicker. 
Any  person  who  will  take  the  trouble  to  try  the  experi- 
ment, will  find  that  curd,  made  from  milk  warm  from 
the  cow,  will  keep  sweet,  much  longer  than  that  which 
has  been  warmed  over  the  fire  ;  and,  besides  this,  it  saves 
the  time  and  trouble  of  skimming  and  warming.  Noth- 
ing will  make  a  good  cheese-maker  assume  a  belligerent 
attitude  so  quick,  as  to  see  the  skimmer  flourished  over 
the  cheese-tub. 

From  a  long  experience  in  a  moderate  sized  dairy,  I 
am  persuaded  that  in  no  way  can  so  much,  or  cheese  of 
so  good  quality  be  made,  as  to  set  the  milk  while  warm 
from  the  cow. 

THE  EMIGRANT  CHEESE. 

The  following  improved  method  of  making  cheese  is 
trom  the  Portland  Transcript.  We  shall  only  say,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  remarks  therein  offered,  that  the  process,  as 
described  by  the  writer,  has  been  repeatedly  tried  with 
flattering  success  to  the  emigrant.  Cheese  made  in  this 
way,  possesses  many  and  important  advantages,  inas- 
much as  it  requires  no  hoops  nor  press. 

NEW  METHOD  OF  MAKING  CHEESE. 

We  have  lately  seen  a  method  of  making  cheese, 
which  is  worthy  of  being  tested  by  experiment  at  this 
season  of  the  year,  especially  by  those  who  have  but  a 
small  quantity  of  milk.  It  is  very  simple,  and  easily 
tried.  The  milk  is  SET  in  the  ordinary  way  every  morn- 


118  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

ing,  and  the  curd  separated  from  the  whey  as  well  as 
can  be  with  the  hands.  It  is  then  pressed  compactly  in- 
to the  bottom  of  an  earthen  pot,  and  covered  over  with 
several  folds  of  dry  linen,  or  cotton  cloth.  By  this  pro- 
cess the  remaining  whey  is  absorbed,  and  when  the  cloth 
becomes  saturated  it  is  removed,  and  a  dry  one  placed  in 
its  stead.  In  the  course  of  the  day  and  night,  this  pro- 
cess removes  the  whey  as  thoroughly  as  it  can  be  done 
by  pressing.  The  next  morning  the  milk  is  prepared  in 
the  same  manner,  and  the  curd  packed  closely  upon  the 
top  of  that  prepared  the  day  previous ;  and  the  same 
method  pursued  in  separating  the  moisture.  This  process 
is  repeated  till  you  have  a  cream-pot,  full,  of  cheese.  It  is 
thus  seen  to  be  a  convenient  method  where  the  dairy  wo- 
man has  the  milk  of  but  one  or  two  cows.  If  it  work 
well,  it  is  an  important  discovery.  If  it  fail,  it  need  not 
be  a  very  disastrous  failure.  It  is  a  very  successful  way 
of  preserving  the  cheese  from  flies  and  mice,  as  it  can 
be  perfectly  inclosed  and  kept  from  such  gentry,  and 
from  the  air  and  light.  We  have  seen  but.  one  experi- 
ment of  this  kind,  and  this  promises  to  be  a  successful 
one.  The  cheese  appeared  as  free  from  moisture,  and 
as  solid  as  that  made  by  the  press.  The  labor  is  much 
less,  and  the  care  of  it  afterward  is  comparatively  no- 
thing. 

TO  MAKE  SAGE  CHEESE. 

Take  the  tops  of  sage,  and  press  the  juice  from  them 
by  beating  in  a  mortar ;  do  the  same  with  leaves  of  spi- 
nach, and  mix  the  two  juices  together.  After  putting  the 
rennet  to  the  milk,  pour  in  some  of  this  juice,  regulating 
the  quantity  by  the  color  and  taste  to  be  given  to  the 
cheese.  As  the  curd  appears,  break  it  gently  and  in  an 
equal  manner  ;  then,  emptying  it  into  the  cheese-vat,  let 


THE  EMIGRANTS  HAND-BOOK.  119 

it  be  a  little  pressed,  in  order  to  make  it  eat  mellow. 
Having  stood  for  about  seven  hours,  salt  and  turn  it  daily 
for  four  or  five  weeks,  when  it  will  be  fit  to  eat.  The 
spinach,  besides  improving  the  flavor  and  correcting  the 
bitterness  of  the  sage,  will  give  a  much  finer  color  than 
can  be  obtained  from  sage  alone. 


HOUSEHOLD  DEPARTMENT- 


COMPRISING 


COOKERY,  PICKLING,  MAKING  SOAP, 


MAKING    CLOTH, 


DYEING, 


ETC.  ETC    ETC. 


CHAPTER    VI. 


WEIGHT  AND  MEASURE 

*  s  all  families  are  not  provided  with  scales  and  weights, 
we  subjoin  a  list  of  weights  and  measures. 

DRY   MEASURE. 

Wheat  flour one  pound  is one  quart. 

Indian  meal one  pound,  two  ounces,  is. ..one  quart. 

Butter,  when  soft one  pound,  one  ounce,  is one  quart. 

Loaf-sugar,  broken one  pound  is one  quart. 

White  sugar,  powdered.... one  pound,  one  ounce,  is      one  quart. 

Best  brown  sugar one  pound,  two  ounces,  is. ..one  quart. 

, ten  eggs  are one  pound. 


LIQUID   MEASURE. 

Sixteen  large  table-spoonfuls  are half  a  pint. 

Eight  large  table-spoonfuls  are one  gill. 

Four  large  table-spoonfuls  are half  a  gill. 

A  common-sized  tumbler  holds half  a  pint. 

A  common-eized  wine-glass half  a  gill. 


HOW  TO  MAKE  BREAD. 

Bread  is  the  most  important  article  for  daily  use ;  and 
great  pains  should  be  taken  in  making  it.  There  are 
few  good  bread- makers,  and  a  few  hints  may  be  useful. 


124 

A  bushel  of  good  wheat  will  make  fifty- six  pounds  of 
flour,  besides  the  bran  and  middlings.  If  you  get  your 
wheat  ground  at  a  custom-mill,  always  weigh  it.  The 
toll  usually  taken  for  grinding  at  custom-mills,  is  one- 
tenth.  It  varies  slightly  from  this  in  some  places,  but 
not  materially. 

•Adulterated  flour  can  be  tested  as  follows:  If  there  be 
whiting  in  it,  dip  the  ends  of  the  fore-finger  and  thumb  in 
sweet  oil,  and  take  up  a  small  quantity  of  flour  between 
them.  If  it  be  pure,  it  will  turn  nearly  black  ;  if  whiting 
be  in  it,  it  will  not  change  color. 

Plaster  of  Paris  in  flour,  can  be  detected  by  dropping 
a  little  sharp  vinegar  on  it ;  if  it  is  pure,  it  will  not  effer- 
vesce. 

Another  good  way  to  test  the  purity  of  flour,  is  to  take 
a  handful  of  it,  and  squeeze  it  tightly  together.  If  it  is 
good,  it  will  retain  the  form  which  the  squeezing  gave  it. 
Sour  or  musty  flour  can  be  known  by  the  smell. 

Having  good  flour,  there  is  no  excuse  for  not  making 
good  bread,  for  it  is  a  very  simple  process.  GOOD  YEAST 
is  all-essential ;  and  we  shall  now  tell  the  reader  how  to 
make  it.  There  are  two  or  three  kinds,  equally  good — 
as  follows: 

HOP  YEAST. 

Take  two  quarts  of  water,  one  handful  of  hops,  two 
tea-cups  wheat  flour;  boil  these  together  about  half  an 
hour,  and  while  it  is  boiling-hot,  pour  it  upon  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  wheat  or  rye  flour  to  make  a  stiff  paste  or 
batter  ;  let  it  stand  until  blood-warm,  when  you  must  add 
half  a  pint  of  yeast,  two  large  spoonfuls  of  molasses,  or 
brown  sugar  if  you  have  it,  and  stir  the  whole  well  ;  set 
it  in  a  cool  place  in  summer,  and  a  warm  one  in  winter ; 
\vhen  perfectly  light  (which  is  the  case  when  it  looks 


125 

frothy)  and  cold,  it  should  be  put  in  a  clean  jar  or  bottle-, 
but  not  filled  or  tightly  corked,  until  thoroughly  worked, 
which  will  be  by  the  next  day ;  then  cork  it  tightly,  and 
it  will  keep  ten  or  twelve  days.  It  is  considered,  by  some 
housekeepers,  a  great  deal  of  trouble  to  prepare  yeast  so 
often.  This  can  be  obviated  by  using  the  following,  for 

HARD  YEAST, 

Take  six  quarts  of  water  and  one  quart  of  hops ;  boil 
them  together  until  only  two  quarts  remain  ;  then  strain 
the  liquid,  and  add  sufficient  flour  or  rye-meal  to  make  a 
stiff  batter,  while  boiling-hot.  When  nearly  cool,  add 
half  a  pint  good  yeast,  and  let  it  stand  a  few  hours  until 
perfectly  light.  You  may  then  add  sifted  Indian  meal, 
until  of  a  consistency  to  roll  out  into  cakes.  Roll  out, 
until  about  half  an  inch  thick,  and  cut  in  strips  two  inches 
wide  ;  then  cut  in  cakes  three  inches  long,  and  lay  upon 
boards  previously  dusted  with  a  little  flour,  and  prick 
them  with  a  fork.  They  can  then  be  set  in  a  clean  dry 
chamber,  where  they  will  be  exposed  to  the  sun  and  air 
to  dry,  or  put  into  the  oven  two  or  three  times,  after  the 
bread  is  drawn  out.  When  perfectly  dry,  put  them  into 
a  bag,  and  hang  it  up  in  a  cool  dry  place. 

Two  cakes  will  make  sufficient  yeast  for  a  peck  of 
flour.  They  should  be  broken  into  a  pint  of  lukewarm 
water,  together  with  a  large  spoonful  of  flour,  the  night 
before  wanted  for  use,  and  kept  in  a  place  moderately 
warm 

MILK  YEAST 

This  yeast  is  made  quicker  than  any  other,  and  is  pre- 
ferred by  many.  Take  a  pint  of  new  milk,  and  stir  in  a 
tea-spoonful  of  salt  and  a  large  spoonful  of  flour.  Set 
this  by  the  fire  where  it  will  keep  lukewarm,  and  it  will 


126  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

be  ready  for  use  in  an  hour.  Twice  the  quantity  of  this 
yeast  is  required ;  and  it  must  be  used  as  soon  as  it  is 
light,  which  will  be  the  case  when  it  looks  frothy,  and 
the  bread  baked  immediately.  Bread  made  of  this  dries 
soon,  but  is  very  good.* 

Having  got  good  yeast,  the  next  steps  are  as  follows : 
For  a  family  of  four  or  five  persons,  where  the  baking  is 
done  but  once  a  week,  take  twenty-one  quarts  of  flour, 
(which  will  weigh  twenty-one  pounds;)  put  it  into  a  pan 
or  trough  large  enough  to  hold  double  the  above  quantity 
of  flour.  Make  a  deep  hole  in  the  middle  of  the  flour ; 
pour  into  it  a  half  pint  of  the  hop  yeast  described  above, 
having  previously  mixed  the  yeast  in  a  pint  of  lukewarm 
water  well  stirred ;  then  with  a  spoon  stir  into  this  liquid 
as  much  of  the  surrounding  flour  as  will  make  a  thin 
batter.  This  will  leave  a  large  part  of  the  whole  mass 
of  flour  perfectly  dry,  with  a  small  island  of  soft  batter 
in  the  centre.  This  is  called  "  setting  the  sponge" 
Sprinkle  on  the  top  of  this  "  sponge  "  a  little  dry  flour. 
Then  cover  the  whole  over  with  a  warm  cloth,  either 
flannel  or  thick  cotton,  and  set  it  by  the  fire  in  winter,  or 
where  the  sun  is  shining  in  summer.  The  leaven  con- 
tained in  the  batter  will  thus  be  spread  to  all  the  flour. 

Let  the  whole  mass  stand  till  it  has  swelled  and  risen, 
so  as  to  form  cracks  on  the  outside ;  then  scatter  over  it 
two  table -spoonfuls  of  fine  salt. 

The  next  step  is  to  make  the  mass  into  dough.  This 
is  done  as  follows :  Take  four  quarts  of  soft  water,  as 
warm  as  milk  in  summer,  a  little  warmer  than  milk  if  in 
winter ;  add  the  water  by  degrees  to  the  flour  till  it  is  all 
thoroughly  moistened,  stirring  it  with  your  hands.  Now 
knead  it  with  your  fists  till  it  becomes  smooth  and  stiff, 
and  that  not  a  particle  of  it  will  stick  to  your  hands.  Do 

*  To  make  Potato  Yeast,  see  page  163.    For  Hungarian  Yeast,  see  iudea 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  127 

not  leave  off  kneading  while  it  is  in  the  least  degree 
sticky.  On  this  depends  the  quality  of  the  bread. 

Then  make  the  whole  mass  into  a  lump  in  the  middle 
of  the  trough  or  pan,  and  sprinkle  it  over  with  flour. 
Cover  it  with  a  warm  cloth,  and,  if  it  be  winter,  place  it 
near  the  fire.  It  will  now  begin  to  swell,  and  in  an  hour 
or  less  it  will  be  at  its  height. 

Now  is  the  time  to  make  into  loaves  for  baking.  This 
is  done  by  dividing  it  into  as  many  loaves  as  you  want, 
say  seven  if  you  please ;  put  these  on  well- floured  tin  or 
earthen  plates,  and  put  immediately  into  the  oven.  Some 
people  put  the  loaves  directly  upon  the  oven  floor,  without 
using  plates.  If  you  do  so,  sweep  the  oven  floor  well. 

It  is  a  good  rule  to  put  the  fire  in  the  oven  when  the 
dough  is  made  up.  The  oven  will  be  ready  just  about  in 
time,  if  the  wood  is  dry  and  good.  To  tell  whether  the 
oven  is  too  hot,  sprinkle  a  little  dry  flour  on  the  bottom ; 
if  the  flour  burns  black  at  once,  wait  a  few  minutes  till  it 
cools. 

You  can  tell  when  it  is  hot  enough  by  the  color  of  the 
bricks  at  the  sides  and  top.  If  these  be  clear  from  smoke 
the  oven  is  heated  sufficiently.* 

While  the  loaves  are  in  the  oven,  it  must  be  shut  up 
and  kept  tight ;  occasionally  taking  a  peep  in  to  see  that 
all  is  right.  It  will  usually  take  an  hour  and  a  half,  or 
two  hours  to  finish  the  baking.  Your  eye  will  tell  you 
about  when  to  take  the  loaves  out  of  the  oven. 

You  will  get  about  twentv-eight  pounds  of  bread  from 
the  twenty-one  quarts  (or  pounds)  of  flour.  The  water 
adds  this  weight  to  it. 

This  recipe  may  be  depended  on.  If  followed,  a  family 
is  certain  of  having  good  bread. 

*  Cooking-stove  ovens  often  brown  the  bread,  by  the  plate  getting  too  hot' 
spread  u  layer  of  ashes  wver  the  bottom  of  the  oven,  and  it  will  prevent  it.  This  is 
decidedly  better  than  putting  in  bricks. 


128  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

Of  course,  a  smaller  family  than  five  persons  will  not 
require  so  large  a  baking.  The  same  proportions  of 
flour,  yeast,  and  water,  should  be  observed  in  a  smaller 
baking. 

BISCUIT. 

A  very  good  kind  of  family  biscuit  can  be  made  in  the 
same  way  as  the  bread,  by  using  a  less  quantity  and  only 
adding  a  little  shortening,  either  of  butter  or  lard — a 
table-spoonful  of  lard,  or  two  of  butter,  will  be  sufficient 
for  as  much  dough  as  will  make  a  large  loaf  of  bread, 
and  that  will  suffice  for  a  family  breakfast  or  supper.* 

ANOTHER  BUISCUT. — One-  cup  shortening,  four  cups 
milk,  warmed  together ;  half  a  cup  yeast,  flour  to  make 
it  stiff. 

QUICK  BISCUIT. — One  quart  sour  cream,  a  large  tea- 
spoonful  saleratus,  a  little  salt,  and  flour  enough  to  maKe 
a  paste  stiff  enough  to  roll.  This  can  be  baked  in  a 
spider  on  a  few  embers. 

If  you  haye  some  milk  or  buttermilk,  you  can  make 
them  very  nice  by  rubbing  a  small  bit  of  shortening  into 
the  flour  and  mixing  with  the  milk,  as  in  the  foregoing 
vou  use  the  cream. 

BREAD  MADE  OF  WOOD. 

In  times  of  great  scarcity,  and  where  famine  threatens, 
it  is  well  to  know  how  to  prepare  a  nutritious  substance, 
which  may  go  under  the  name  of  bread,  from  the  beech 
and  other  woods  destitute  of  turpentine. 

Take  green  wood,  chop  it  into  very  small  chips ;  or 
make  it  into  shavings,  which  is  better.  Boil  these  three 
or  four  times,  stirring  them  very  hard  during  boiling. 

*  This  dough  may  he  used  to  make  good  common  dough-nuts,  by  adding  to  it 
little  allspice  and  molasses,  or  sugar ;  and  fry,  after  having  been  left  to  rise  Jl. 
r«coRd  time 


129 

Dry  them,  and  then  reduce  them  to  powder  if  possible ; 
if  not,  as  fine  as  you  can.  Bake  this  powder  in  the  oven 
three  or  four  times,  and  then  grind  it  as  you  would  corn. 
Wood  thus  prepared  acquires  the  smell  and  taste  of  corn- 
flour. It  will  not  ferment  without-  the  addition  of  leaven. 
The  leaven  prepared  for  corn-flour,  is  the  best  to  use 
with  it. 

It  will  form  a  spongy  bread,  and  when  much  baked 
with  a  hard  crust,  is  by  no  means  unpalatable. 

This  kind  of  flour  boiled  in  water  and  left  to  stand, 
forms  a  thick,  tough,  trembling  jelly,  which  is  very  nu- 
tritious, and  in  time  of  great  scarcity  in  frontier  countries, 
may  be  resorted  to  to  preserve  life,  with  perfect  confi- 
dence.* 

INDIAN  CORN  CAKE. 

Indian  corn  is  very  much  used  in  the  United  States, 
and  is  an  excellent  bread-stuff.  It  is  called  maize  in  the 
old  country.  The  following  recipe  will  make  a  good 
substitute  for  bread,  and  is  very  easy  to  be  made. 

Take  one  quart  of  sifted  Indian  meal,  two  table-spoon- 
fuls of  molasses,  two  tea-spoonfuls  of  salt,  a  bit  of  short- 
ening, (lard  or  butter,)  half  as  big  as  a  hen's  egg  ;  stir 
these  together  ;  make  it  pretty  moist  with  scalding  water, 
put  it  into  a  well  greased  pan,  smooth  the  surface,  and 
bake  it  brown  on  both  sides  before  a  quick  fire. 

A  rich  kind  of  Indian  cake  may  be  thus  made  :  Take 
one  egg  to  a  half-pint  of  milk,  put  in  two  table-spoonfuls 
of  molasses,  a  little  ginger  or  cinnamon  ;  stir  into  this 

*  The  writer  of  these  pages  believes  the  tore  root  of  the  Sandwich  Islands,  which 
forms  the  great  staple  of  food  for  the  natives,  to  he  the  wild  turnip  of  the  American 
woods.  The  latter  is  poisonous  in  an  uncooked  st;ite,  and  so  is  the  tarn. 

The  writer  has  himself  eaten  of  the  cooked  taro,  (culled  poe  in  its  prepared  stnte) 
at  the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  can  testify  to  its  pahtnbieness  and  nutritious-ness.  In 
the  next  edition  of  this  work,  the  matter  will  be  properly  noticed. 


130 

mixture  sufficient  Indian  meal  to  make  it  thick  enough  to 
pour.  Take  a  bake-kettle  or  spider,  grease  it,  pour  the 
cake  in,  cover  it  and  bake  it  half  an  hour  or  more,  ac- 
cording to  circumstances,  which  can  be  judged  by  the 
eye.  Sour  milk  is  good  to  use  in  mixing  this  cake,  instead 
of  water.  A  tea-spoonful  of  dissolved  pearlash  will  make 
the  milk  sweet,  and  must  be  used. — Mrs.  Child. 


PIES,    &c. 

THE  greatest  possible  cleanliness  and  nicety  should  be 
observed  in  making  pastry.  The  slab  or  board,  paste- 
rollers,  tins,  cutters,  stamps,  everything,  in  fact,  used  for 
it,  and  especially  the  hands,  (for  these  last  are  not  always 
so  scrupulously  attended  to  as  they  ought  to  be,)  should  be 
equally  free  from  the  slightest  soil,  or  particle  of  dust. 
The  more  expeditiously  the  finer  kinds  of  crust  are  made 
and  despatched  to  the  oven,  and  the  less  they  are  touched, 
the  better.  Much  of  their  excellence  depends  upon  the 
baking  also;  they  should  have  a  sufficient  degree  of  heat 
to  raise  them  quickly,  but  not  so  fierce  a  one  as  to  color 
them  too  milch  before  they  are  done,  and  still  less  to  burn 
them.  The  oven-door  should  remain  closed  after  they 
are  put  in,  and  not  removed  until  the  paste  is  set.  Large 
raised  pies  require  a  steadily  sustained,  or,  what  is  tech- 
nically called,  a  soaking  heat;  and  to  ensure  this,  the 
oven  should  be  made  very  hot,  then  cleared,  and  closely 
shut  from  half  to  a  whole  hour  before  it  is  used,  to  con- 
centrate the  heat.  It  is  an  advantage  in  this  case  to  have 
a  large  log  or  two  of  cord-wood  burned  in  it,  in  addition 
to  the  usual  firing. 

In  mixing  paste,  the  water  should  be  added  gradually, 
and  the  whole  gently  drawn  together  with  the  fingers, 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  131 

until  sufficient  has  been  added,  when  it  should  be  lightly 
kneaded  until  it  is  as  smooth  as  possible.  When  care- 
lessly  made,  the  surface  is  often  left  covered  with  small 
dry  crumbs  or  lumps ;  or  the  water  is  poured  in  heedless- 
ly in  so  large  a  proportion  that  it  becomes  necessary  to 
add  more  flour  to  render  it  workable  in  any  way ;  and  this 
ought  particularly  to  be  avoided,  when  a  certain  weight 
of  all  the  ingredients  has  been  taken. 

VERY  GOOD  LIGHT  PASTE. 

Mix  with  a  pound  of  sifted  flour  six  ounces  of  fresh, 
pure  lard,  and  make  them  into  a  smooth  paste  with  cold 
water ;  press  the  buttermilk  from  ten  ounces  of  butter, 
and  form  it  into  a  ball,  by  twisting  a  clean  cloth  round  it. 
Roll  out  the  paste,  put  the  ball  of  butter  in  the  middle, 
close  it  like  an  apple-dumpling,  and  roll  it  very  lightly, 
till  it  is  less  than  an  inch  thick ;  fold  the  ends  into  the 
middle,  dust  a  little  flour  over  the  board  and  paste-roller, 
and  roll  the  paste  thin  a  second  time ;  then  set  it  aside  for 
three  or  four  minutes  in  a  very  cool  place,  give  it  two 
more  turns,  as  they  are  technically  called,  and  after  it  has 
again  been  left  a  few  minutes,  roll  it  out  twice  more,  fold- 
ing it  each  time  in  three.  This  ought  to  render  it  fit  for 
use.  The  sooner  this  paste  is  sent  to  the  oven  after  it  is 
made,  the  lighter  it  will  be  :  if  allowed  to  remain  long  be- 
fore it  is  baked,  it  will  be  tough  and  heavy. 

Flour,  1  Ib. ;  lard,  6  ozs.  j  butter,  10  ozs. ;  little  salt. 

ENGLISH  PUFF-PASTE. 

Break  lightly  into  a  couple  of  pounds  of  dried  and  sift- 
ed flour,  eight  ounces  of  butter ;  add  a  pinch  of  salt,  and 
sufficient  cold  water  to  make  the  paste  ;  work  it  as  quickly 
and  as  lightly  as  possible,  until  it  is  smooth  and  pliable ; 


132 

then  level  it  with  the  paste-roller  till  it  is  three-quarters 
of  an  inch  thick,  and  place  regularly  upon  it  six  ounces 
of  butter  in  small  bits ;  fold  the  paste  like  a  blanket-pud- 
ding, roll  it  out  again,  lay  on  it  six  ounces  more  of  butter, 
repeat  the  rolling,  dusting  each  time  a  little  flour  over  the 
board  and  paste ;  add  again  six  ounces  of  butter,  and  roll 
the  paste  out  thin  three  or  four  times,  folding  the  ends  into 
the  middle. 

Flour,  2  Ibs. ;  little  salt ;  butter,  1  Ib.  10  ozs. 

If  very  rich  paste  be  required,  equal  portions  of  flour 
and  butter  must  be  used  ;  and  the  latter  may  be  divided 
into  two,  instead  of  three  parts,  when  it  is  to  be  rolled  in. 

CREAM  PASTE. 
(Very  good.) 

Stir  a  little  fine  salt  into  a  pound  of  dry  flour,  and  mix 
gradually  with  it  sufficient  very  thick  sweet  cream,  to 
form  a  smooth  paste ;  it^ill  be  found  sufficiently  good  for 
common  family  dinners,  without  the  addition  of  butter ; 
but  to  make  an  excellent  crust,  roll  in  four  ounces  in  the 
usual  way,  after  having  given  the  paste  a  couple  of  turns. 
Handle  it  as  lightly  as  possible  in  making  it,  and  send  it 
to  the  oven  as  soon  as  it  is  ready ;  it  may  be  used  for  fruit 
tarts,  cannelons,  puffs,  and  other  varieties  of  small  pastry, 
or  for  good  meat-pies.  Six  ounces  of  butter  to  the  pound 
of  flour  will  give  a  very  rich  crust. 

Flour,  1  Ib. ;  salt,  1  small  saltspoonful,  (more  for  meat- 
pies;)  rich  cream,  J  to  £  pint;  butter,  4  ozs.;  for  richest 
crust,  6  ozs. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  133 


FLEAD  CRUST. 

Plead  is  the  provincial  name  for  the  leaf,  or  inside  fat 
of  a  pig,  which  makes  excellent  crust  when  fresh,  much 
finer,  indeed,  than  after  it  is  melted  into  lard.  Clear  it 
quite  from  skin,  and  slice  it  very  thin  into  the  flour ;  add 
sufficient  salt  to  give  flavor  to  the  paste,  and  make  the 
whole  up  smooth  and  firm  with  cold  water ;  lay  it  on  a 
clean  dresser,  and  beat  it  forcibly  with  a  rolling-pin,  until 
the  flead  is  blended  perfectly  with  the  flour.  It  may  then 
be  made  into  cakes  with  a  paste-cutter,  or  used  for  pies, 
round  the  edges  of  which  a  knife  should  be  passed,  as  the 
crust  rises  better  when  cut  than  if  merely  rolled  to  the 
proper  size.  With  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  but 
ter,*  which  should  be  rolled  in  after  the  paste  is  made,  i; 
will  be  found  equal  to  fine  puff-crust,  with  the  advantag* 
of  being  more  easy  of  digestion. 

COMMON  SUET-CRUST  FOR  PIES. 

In  many  families  this  is  preferred  both  for  pies  am 
tarts,  to  crust  made  with  butter,  as  being  much  mor 
wholesome  ;  but  it  should  never  be  served,  unless  espe 
cially  ordered,  as  it  is  to  some  persons  peculiarly  distaste- 
ful. Chop  the  suet  extremely  fine,  and  add  from  six  to 
eight  ounces  of  it  to  a  pound  of  flour,  with  a  few  grains 
of  salt ;  mix  these  with  cold  water  into  a  firm  paste,  and 
work  it  very  smooth.  Some  cooks  beat  it  with  a  paste- 
roller,  until  the  suet  is  perfectly  blended  with  the  flour ; 
but  the  crust  is  lighter  without  this.  In  exceedingly  sul- 
try weather,  the  suet,  not  being  firm  enough  to  chop,  may 

*  Six  ounces  of  flead,  with  two  of  butter,  to  the  pound  of  flour,  will  make  good 
common  crust ;  half  as  much  again,  witli  the  same  weight  of  flour,  excellent  crust ;  a 
teaspoonful  of  salt  will  be  required  with  either. 


184  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

be  sliced  as  thin  as  possible,  and  well  beaten  into  the 
paste  after  it  is  wetted. 

Flour,  2  Ibs. ;  beef  or  veal  kidney-suet,  12  to  16  ozs. ; 
salt,  (for  fruit-pies,)  £  teaspoonful,  for  meat-pies,  1  tea- 
spoonful. 

VERY  SUPERIOR  SUET-CRUST. 

Strip  the  skin  entirely  from  some  fresh  veal  or  beef 
kidney-suet,  chop,  and  then  put  it  into  the  mortar,  with  a 
small  quantity  of  pure-flavored  lard,  oil,  or  butter,  and 
pound  it  perfectly  smooth ;  it  may  then  be  used  for  crust 
in  the  same  way  that  butter  is  in  making  puff-paste,  and 
in  this  form  will  be  found  a  most  excellent  substitute  for 
it,  for  hot  pies  or  tarts.  It  is  not  quite  so  good  for  those 
which  are  to  be  served  cold.  Eight  ounces  of  suet  pound- 
ed with  two  of  butter,  and  worked  with  the  fingers  into  a 
pound  of  flour,  will  make  an  exceedingly  good  short  crust, 
but  for  a  very  rich  one,  the  proportion  must  be  increased. 

Good  short  crust :  flour,  1  Ib. ;  suet,  8  ozs. ;  butter, 
2  ozs.  J  salt,  ^  teaspoonful.  Richer  crust:  suet,  16  ozs. ; 
butter,  4  ozs. ;  flour,  1£  Ib. ;  salt,  1  small  teaspoonful. 

A  COMMON  CHICKEN  PIE. 

Prepare  the  fowls  as  for  boiling,  cut  them  down  into 
joints,  season  them  with  salt,  white  pepper,  and  nutmeg  or 
pounded  mace  ;  arrange  them  neatly  in  a  dish  bordered 
with  paste,  lay  amongst  them  three  or  four  fresh  eggs, 
boiled  hard,  and  cut  in  halves,  pour  in  some  cold  water, 
put  on  a  thick  cover,  pare  the  edge,  and  ornament  it,  make 
a  hole  in  the  centre,  lay  a  roll  of  paste  or  a  few  leaves 
round  it,  and  bake  the  pie  in  a  moderate  oven  from  an 
hour  to  an  hour  and  a  half.  The  back  and  neck  bones 


135 

may  be  boiled  down  with  a  bit  or  two  of  lean  ham,  to 
make  a  little  additional  gravy,  which  can  be  poured  into 
the  pie  after  it  is  baked. 

PUDDING-PIES. 

This  form  of  pastry  (or  its  name,  at. least)  is,  we  be- 
lieve, peculiar  to  the  county  of  Kent,  where  it  is  made  in 
abundance,  and  eaten  by  all  classes  of  people  during 
Lent.  Boil  for  fifteen  minutes,  three  ounces  of  ground 
rice  in  a  pint  and  a  half  of  new  milk,  and  when  taken 
from  the  fire,  stir  into  it  three  ounces  of  butter,  and  four 
of  sugar ;  add  to  these  six  well-beaten  eggs,  a  grain  or 
two  of  salt,  and  a  flavoring  of  nutmeg  or  lemon-peel  at 
pleasure.  When  the  mixture  is  nearly  cold,  line  some 
large  patty-pans  or  some  saucers  with  thin  puff-paste,  fill 
them  with  it  three  parts  full,  strew  the  tops  thickly  with 
currants  which  have  been  cleaned  and  dried ;  and  bake 
the  pudding-pies  from  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes,  in  a  mod- 
erate oven. 

Milk,  li  pint ;  ground  rice,  3  ozs. :  15  minutes.  But- 
ter, 3  ozs. ;  sugar,  £  Ib. ;  nutmeg  or  lemon-rind  ;  eggs,  6; 
currants,  4  to  6  ozs. :  15  to  20  minutes. 

PUDDING-PIES. 

(A  commoner  kind.) 

One  quart  of  new  milk,  five  ounces  of  ground  rice, 
butter,  one  ounce  and  a  half,  (or  more,)  four  ounces  of 
sugar,  half  a  small  nutmeg,  grated,  a  pinch  of  salt,  four 
large  eggs,  and  three  ounces  of  currants. 

FRUIT  PIES. 

Fruit  pies  are  generally  made  with  plain  paste,  and  re- 
quire but  little  seasoning.  All  small  fruits,  such  as  raso- 


136  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

berries,  currants,  cherries,  and  gooseberries,  require  the 
addition  of  sugar  and  water  only.  Apple  pies,  when 
made  of  ripe  fruit,  are  best  made  by  putting  the  lower 
crust  into  the  plate,  and  then  slicing  the  apples  upon  it. 
Then  cover  the  apples  with  the  upper  crust,  and  bake. 
As  soon  as  the  pies  are  taken  from  the  oven,  entirely  re- 
move the  upper  crust,  and  sweeten  the  pie  with  sugar,  and 
flavor  it  with  grated  nutmeg,  or  whatever  else  you  prefer. 
A  piece  of  butter  added  (of  the  size  of  a  nutmeg  to  each 
pie)  is  a  great  improvement. 

Dried  fruit  and  cranberries  should  be  stewed  with  a  lit- 
tle water,  and  allowed  to  get  cool  before  being  made  into 
pies. 

Peaches  and  plums  should  be  stoned  and  cut  in  halves: 
they  require  the  addition  of  a  little  water,  as  do  most 
kinds  of  fruit. 


MINCE-MEAT,  FOR  MINCE  PIES. 

To  one  pound  of  an  unsalted  ox-tongue,  boiled  tender 
and  cut  free  from  the  rind,  add  two  pounds  of  fine  stoned 
raisins,  two  of  beef  kidney-suet,  two  pounds  and  a  half 
of  currants  well  cleaned  and  dried,  two  of  good  apples, 
two  and  a  half  of  fine  Lisbon  sugar,  from  half  to  a  whole 
pound  of  candied  peel,  according  to  the  taste,  the  grated 
rinds  of  two  large  lemons,  and  two  more  boiled  quite  ten- 
der, and  chopped  up  entirely,  with  the  exception  of  the 
pips,  two  small  nutmegs,  half  an  ounce  of  salt,  a  large 
teaspoonful  of  pounded  mace,  rather  more  of  ginger  in 
powder,  half  a  pint  of  brandy,  and  as  much  good  sherry 
or  madeira.  Mince  these  ingredients  separately,  and  mix 
the  others  all  well  before  the  brandy  and  the  wine  are 
added ;  press  the  whole  into  a  jar,  or  jars,  and  keep  it 
closely  covered.  It  should  be  stored  for  a  few  days  be- 


137 

fore  it  is  used,  and  will  remain  good  for  many  weeks. 
Some  persons  like  a  slight  flavoring  of  cloves,  in  addition 
to  the  other  spices  ;  others  add  the  juice  of  two  or  three 
lemons,  and  a  larger  quantity  of  brandy.  The  inside  of 
a  tender  and  well-roasted  sirloin  of  beef  will  answer  quite 
as  well  as  the  tongue. 

Of  a  fresh-boiled  ox-tongue,  or  inside  of  roasted  sirloin, 
1  Ib. ;  stoned  raisins  and  minced  apples,  each  2  Ibs. ;  cur- 
rants and  fine  sugar,  each  2£  Ibs. ;  candied  orange,  lemon, 
or  citron-rind,  8  to  16  ozs. ;  boiled  lemons,  2  large ;  rinds 
of  two  others,  grated ;  salt,  ^  oz. ;  nutmegs,  2  small ; 
pounded  mace,  1  large  teaspoonful,  and  rather  more  of 
ginger ;  good  sherry  or  madeira,  £  pint ;  brandy,  1  pint. 

Obs. — The  lemons  will  be  sufficiently  boiled  in  from 
one  hour  to  one  and  a  quarter. 

MINCE  PIES. 

A  very  good  mince  pie  may  be  made  from  the  hock  of 
beef,  or  the  neck-piece,  or  both  boiled  together  till  tender. 
After  being  thoroughly  boiled,  separate  the  meat  from  the 
bones  and  gristle,  and  chop  it  fine.  Add  to  every  pound 
of  beef  half  a  pound  of  suet  chopped  fine,  and  a  pound 
of  tart  apples  chopped  fine.  Wet  the  above  pretty  moist 
with  sweet  cider,  (or  vinegar  and  water,  if  you  cannot  get 
cider,)  and  make  the  whole  as  sweet  as  you  may  wish, 
with  sugar  and  molasses,  or  either.  Now  add  a  little 
salt,  pepper,  ginger,  cinnamon,  cloves,  allspice,  and  mace, 
(or  as  many  of  these  as  you  please,)  according  to  your 
taste,  and  a  few  stoned  raisins  and  currants.  Make  your 
pies  on  shallow  plates,  with  a  thick  upper  crust,  in  which 
a  small  hole  should  be  cut,  and  bake. 

If  you  wish  to  prepare  meat  for  pies,  to  keep  some 
time,  boil  and  chop  your  meat  as  before  mentioned, 


138  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

adding  the  suet,  cider,  sweetening,  and  spices,  leaving  out 
the  apples  ;  pack  this  in  a  jar,  and  pour  over  it  a  tea-cup 
full  of  brandy.  Cover  the  jar  with  white  paper,  tie  it  up 
tight,  and  put  it  away  in  a  cool  place.  When  wanted  for 
use,  add  the  apples. 

PUMPKIN  PIES. 

Take  a  fine  ripe  pumpkin,  rinse  it,  take  out  the  inside, 
and  cut  the  solid  part  into  small  pieces.  Put  these  into  a 
covered  pot,  with  just  water  enough  to  prevent  their  burn- 
ing.  When  stewed  soft,  stir  thoroughly  with  a  wooden 
stick.  Let  it  remain  on  the  fire  until  the  water  is  all 
evaporated  ;  stirring  it  occasionally,  to  prevent  its  burning 
or  adhering  to  the  pot.  When  the  stewed  pumpkin  is  suf- 
ficiently dry,  take  it  out  of  the  pot,  and  when  it  is  cool 
enough,  pass  it  through  a  sieve. 

Now  take  milk,  according  to  the  number  of  pies  you 
may  wish  to  make  out  of  the  stewed  pumpkin.  No  rule 
can  be  given  as  to  the  quantity  of  milk,  as  it  must  dtpend 
on  the  taste  of  the  cook,  and  the  richness  of  the  pies 
wanted.  If  you  wish  them  plain,  add  to  the  pumpkin  milk 
enough  to  make  it  of  the  consistency  of  thick  batter,  and 
sweeten  with  molasses  and  sugar,  or  with  either  alone. 
The  sweetening  must  necessarily  be  a  matter  of  judgment, 
to  be  governed  by  tasting  the  mixture.  Now  add  a  table- 
spoonful  of  ginger,  and  one  of  powdered  cinnamon.  Two 
or  three  eggs  would  make  them  richer. 

Now  roll  out  your  paste,  and  line  a  soup-plate  with  it, 
turning  the  edges  neatly.  Then  cut  a  thin  strip  of  paste, 
and  lay  it  around  the  edge  of  the  plate,  and  fill  up  with 
the  prepared  pumpkin. 

These  pies  require  a  hot  oven,  and  should  be  baked  as 
soon  as  filled. 


139 


GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  CAKES. 


The  ingredients  for  cakes,  as  well  as  for  puddings, 
should  all  be  fresh  and  good,  as  well  as  free  from  damp ; 
the  lightness  of  many  kinds  depends  entirely  on  that  given 
to  the  eggs  by  whisking,  and  by  the  manner  in  which  the 
whole  is  mixed.  A  small  portion  of  carbonate  of  soda, 
which  will  not  be  in  the  slightest  degree  perceptible  to  the 
taste  after  the  cake  is  baked,  if  thrown  in  just  before  the 
mixture  is  put  into  the  oven,  will  ensure  its  rising  well. 

To  guard  against  the  bitterness  so  often  imparted  by 
yeast,  when  it  is  used  for  cakes  or  biscuits,  it  should  be 
sparingly  added,  and  the  sponge  should  be  left  twice  the 
usual  time  to  rise.  This  method  will  be  found  to  answer 
equally  with  bread.  For  example  :  should  a  couple  of 
spoonfuls  of  yeast  be  ordered  in  a  receipt,  when  it  is  bit- 
ter, use  but  one,  and  let  it  stand  two  hours,  instead  of  half 
the  time ;  the  fermentation,  though  slow,  will  be  quite  as 
perfect  as  if  it  were  more  quickly  effected,  and  the  cake 
or  loaf  thus  made,  will  not  become  dry  by  any  means  so 
soon  as  if  a  larger  portion  of  yeast  were  mixed  with  it. 

All  light  cakes  require  a  rather  brisk  oven  to  raise  and 
set  them  ;  very  large  rich  ones  a  well-sustained  degree  of 
heat,  sufficient  to  bake  them  through  ;  and  small  sugar- 
cakes  a  very  slow  oven,  to  prevent  their  taking  a  deep 
color  before  they  are  half  done :  gingerbread,  too,  should 
be  gently  baked,  unless  it  be  of  the  light  thick  kind. 

To  ascertain  whether  a  cake  be  done,  thrust  a  knife  into 
the  centre,  and  should  this  come  out  clean,  draw  it  from 
the  oven  directly  ;  but  should  the  paste  adhere  to  it,  con- 
tinue the  baking.  Several  sheets  of  paper  are  placed 
usually  under  large  plum-cakes. 


140 


BUCKWHEAT  CAKES. 

Take  a  quart  of  lukewarm  water ;  add  a  tea-spoonful 
of  salt ;  make  a  moderately  thick  batter  of  buckwheat 
flour,  and  two  handfuls  of  Indian  corn  meal.  -  Then  add 
a  tea-cupful  of  home-made  yeast,  or  a  table-spoonful  of 
brewer's  yeast,  and  set  it  over  night  in  a  warm  place  to 
rise.  In  the  morning  add  a  tea-spoonful  of  saleratus,  if 
the  above  mixture  be  sour,  dissolved  in  a  little  hot  water. 
Fry  them  in  fat  enough  to  prevent  their  sticking  to  the 
griddle. 

ICING  FOR  PASTRY. 

The  best  mode  of  icing  pastry  before  it  is  sent  to  the 
oven  is,  to  moisten  the  paste  with  cold  water,  to  sift  sugar 
thickly  upon  it,  and  to  press  it  lightly  on  with  the  hand ; 
but  when  a  whiter  icing  is  preferred,  the  pastry  must  be 
drawn  from  the  oven  when  nearly  baked,  and  brushed 
with  white  of  egg,  whisked  to  a  froth ;  then  well  covered 
with  the  sifted  sugar,  and  sprinkled  with  a  few  drops  of 
water  before  it  is  put  in  again  :  this  glazing  answers  also 
very  well,  though  it  takes  a  slight  color,  if  used  before 
the  pastry  is  baked. 

IMPROVED  CORN  BREAD. 

Take  corn-meal,  a  sufficient  quantity  to  make  a  stiff 
batter,  with  three  pints  of  sour  milk ;  three  eggs,  well 
beaten ;  two  ounces  shortening ;  one  gill  best  molasses ; 
a  little  salt  and  saleratus  j  grease  pan  well,  and  bake 
quick. 

VERY  GOOD  SMALL  RICH  CAKES. 
Beat  and  mix  well  together  four  eggs  properly  whisked, 
and  half  a  pound  of  fine  sifted  sugar  j  pour  to  them  by 


141 

degrees  a  quarter-pound  of  clarified  butter,  as  little 
warmed  as  possible  ;  stir  lightly  in  with  these  four  ounces 
of  dry  sifted  flour,  beat  the  mixture  for  about  ten  minutes, 
put  it  into  small  buttered  patty-pans,  and  bake  the  cakes  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  in  a  moderate  oven.  They  should  be 
flavored  with  the  rasped  or  grated  rind  of  a  small  lemon, 
or  with  pounded  mace  or  cinnamon. 

Eggs,  4 ;  sugar,  -i  Ib. ;  butter,  4  ozs. ;  flour,  4  ozs. ; 
lemon-rind,  mace,  or  cinnamon :  baked  15  minutes. 


GINGERBREAD. 

For  a  simple  kind  of  gingerbread,  the  following  ingre- 
dients only  are  needed  :  one  quart  of  molasses  ;  a  tea-cup- 
ful of  butter,  and  one  of  cream ;  two  tea-spoonfuls  of 
pearlash,  (or  saleratus;)  a  table-spoonful  or  two  of  gin- 
ger ;  and  flour. 

Take  as  much  flour  as  you  think  the  molasses  and 
cream  will  wet;  rub  the  butter  thoroughly  into  the  flour; 
crush  the  saleratus  very  fine,  and  put  it  into  the  cream. 
Now  add  the  cream  and  molasses,  and  ginger,  to  the  flour, 
and  knead  it  into  a  dough  of  a  proper  consistency  to  roll 
out  into  sheets  or  cakes,  as  may  be  desired. 

Soft  Gingerbread  is  made  by  mixing  three  tea-cupfuls 
of  molasses,  one  of  melted  butter,  one  table-spoonful  of 
ginger,  four  well-beaten  eggs.  After  mixing  the  above 
together,  add  a  few  handfuls  of  flour,  and  then  a  tea-cup- 
ful of  cream,  with  a  tea-spoonful  of  saleratus  dissolved  in 
it.  Then  stir  in  sufficient  flour  to  make  it  of  a  thickness 
to  just  enable  you  to  stir  it  with  a  spoon. 

If  milk  is  used  in  either  of  the  above  cakes,  instead  of 
cream,  add  more  butter.  Beef  drippings  are  very  nice 
for  a  part  of  the  shortening. 


142 


CUP  CAKE 


To  three  cups  of  light  bread  dough,  add  two  cups 
crushed  brown  sugar,  one  cup  of  butter,  half  a  cup  of 
cream  or  milk,  a  tea-spoonful  of  saleratus,  a  tea-spoonful 
of  cinnamon,  and  a  grated  nutmeg.  Beat  these  well  to- 
gether for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes.  Three  or  four  eggs 
improve  this  cake,  but  it  is  very  good  without  them. 

After  the  above  are  well  mixed,  put  the  same  into  your 
cake-pans,  and  let  it  remain  half  an  hour  before  setting  in 
the  oven. 

BUTTER  BISCUITS. 

Take  four  pounds  of  flour,  and  cut  into  it  one  pound  of 
butter,  and  a  little  salt.  Then  wet  with  sufficient  watei 
or  milk  to  form  a  stiff  dough ;  and  knead  it  very  hard. 
After  it  is  well  and  thoroughly  kneaded,  beat  the  dougK 
hard  on  both  sides  with  a  rolling-pin  for  some  time.  Then 
roll  the  dough,  and  cut  it  into  small  round  cakes.  These 
cakes  should  be  pounded  again  on  both  sides,  pricked,  and 
baked  in  a  moderate  oven. 

CRULLERS. 

Mix  one  cup  of  butter  and  one  of  sugar ;  beat  and  add 
four  eggs,  and  spice  to  your  taste.  Add  a  little  flour,  then 
a  tea-cupful  of  cream,  with  a  tea-spoonful  of  saleratus, 
and  flour  enough  to  roll  out.  Spread  some  flour  on  your 
paste-board,  and  roll  the  dough  out  to  the  thickness  of 
about  half  an  inch.  Cut  the  dough  into  slips,  and  twist 
in  any  form  you  please  ;  or  shape  the  crullers  with  a  jag- 
ging iron.  Have  ready  an  iron  pot  or  a  deep  pan,  with 
melted  lard  in  it,  and  lay  the  crullers  lightly  in.  The 
lard  should  be  hot  enough  to  boil  up  when  the  cakes  are 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  143 

»aid  in,  and  the  crullers  should  be  constantly  watched,  and 
turned  when  brown. 

These  cakes  are  plain,  but  good.  A  richer  kind  may 
be  made  by  using  one  and  a  half  pounds  of  sugar,  three 
quarters  of  a  pound  of  butter,  thirteen  eggs,  a  grated  nut- 
meg, and  as  much  flour  as  the  eggs  will  take. 

RICH  DOUGH-NUTS. 

Three  pounds  of  sifted  flour;  a  pound  of  powdered 
sugar ;  three  quarters  of  a  pound  of  butter ;  four  eggs ; 
half  a  large  tea-cupful  of  yeast ;  a  pint  and  a  half  of 
milk ;  a  tea-spoonful  of  powdered  cinnamon  ;  a  grated  nut- 
meg ;  a  table-spoonful  of  rose-water,  if  desired. 

Cut  up  the  butter  in  flour.  Add  the  sugar,  spice,  and 
rose-water.  Beat  the  eggs  very  light,  and  pour  them  into 
the  mixture.  Add  the  yeast,  (half  a  tea-cup,  or  two  wine- 
glasses full,)  and  then  stir  in  the  milk  by  degrees,  so  as  to 
make  it  a  soft  dough.  Cover  it,  and  set  it  to  rise. 

When  quite  light,  cut  it  in  diamonds  with  a  jagging- 
iron,  or  a  sharp  knife,  and  fry  them  in  lard.  Grate  loaf- 
sugar  over  them  when  done.* 

MUFFINS. 

Take  a  quart  of  new  milk,  put  into  it  a  large  spoonful 
of  butter,  and  set  them  by  the  fire  till  the  butter  is  melt- 
ed ;  then  add  a  tea-spoonful  of  salt.  Beat  three  eggs,  and 
stir  them  into  the  above,  with  a  large  spoonful  of  brewer's 
yeast,  or  four  of  home-made  yeast.  Then  stir  in  sufficient 
flour  to  make  it  of  the  consistency  of  the  soft  gingerbread 
described  on  another  page. 

Set  the  batter  to  rise  in  a  warm  place,  and  it  will  be 

*  On  page  127,  a  recipe  for  good  common  dough-nuts  may  be  found. 


144 

ready  to  bake  in  four  or  five  hours.  When  light,  grease 
your  baking-iron  and  muffin-rings.  Fill  your  rings  half 
full  of  the  batter,  and  bake  until  the  muffins  are  light 
brown.  Pull  them  open  with  your  fingers,  and  butter 
them  while  hot. 

ROLLS. 

To  seven  pounds  of  flour  add  two  tea-spoonfuls  of  salt. 
Make  a  hole  in  the  mass  of  flour,  and  stir  in  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  good  brewer's  yeast,  or  a  tea-cupful  of  home- 
made, mixed  with  a  little  lukewarm  water.  Then  add  a 
quart  of  milk,  and  stir  the  whole  with  a  spoon  in  the  cen- 
tre of  the  four,  till  a  thin  batter  is  formed  in  the  centre. 
Sprinkle  a  little  flour  over  the  batter,  and  set  it  to  rise. 
When  light,  knead  it  well,  and  form  into  rolls,  and  allow 
them  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  to  rise  before  baking. 


SPONGE  CAKE. 

Break  the  whites  of  ten  eggs  into  a  large  shallow  dish ; 
beat  them  as  light  as  possible.  Beat  the  yolks  with  one 
pound  of  finely  powdered  white  sugar,  the  grated  rind  of 
two  lemons,  and  the  juice  of  one.  When  the  whites  have 
been  thoroughly  beaten,  add  them  to  the  yolks  and  sugar ; 
and,  then  add  gradually  half  a  pound  of  sifted  flour ;  beat 
them  all  well  together,  and  bake  in  a  quick  oven. 

Now  butter  some  sheets  or  strips  of  white  paper,  and 
line  your  baking-tins  before  putting  in  your  cake  ;  and  if, 
while  baking,  it  browns  too  soon,  lay  paper  over  the  top 
of  the  cake. 

If  you  bake  the  whole  in  one  cake,  it  will  require  an 
hour's  baking ;  but  if  in  smaller  ones,  ten  or  fifteen  min- 
utes are  sufficient. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  145 

BATTER  CAKE. 

Take  one  pint  of  cream,  one  pint  of  sour  milk  or  butter- 
milk, four  eggs,  a  tea-spoonful  of  salt,  saleratus  sufficient 
to  destroy  the  acidity  of  the  milk,  and  three  pints  of  sifted 
flour,  or  sufficient  to  make  a  stiff  batter.  Stir  the  articles 
well  together,  and  bake  in  a  deep  dish.  To  be  eaten  hot 
with  butter. 

VERY  SUPERIOR  WHIPPED  SYLLABUBS, 

Weigh  seven  ounces  of  fine  sugar,  and  rasp  on  it  the 
rinds  of  two  fresh  sound  lemons  of  good  siza,  then  pound 
or  roll  it  to  powder,  and  put  it  into  a  bowl  with  the  strained 
juice  of  the  lemons,  two  large  glasses  of  sherry,  and  two 
of  brandy ;  when  the  sugar  is  nearly  or  quite  dissolved, 
add  a  pint  of  rich  cream,  and  whisk  or  mill  the  mixture 
well ;  take  off  the  froth  as  it  rises,  and  put  it  into  glasses. 
These  syllabubs  will  remain  good  for  several  days,  and 
should  always  be  made,  if  possible,  four  and  twenty  hours 
before  they  are  wanted  for  table.  The  full  flavor  of  the 
lemon-rind  is  obtained  with  less  trouble  than  in  rasping, 
by  paring  it  very  thin  indeed,  and  infusing  it  for  some 
hours  in  the  juice  of  the  fruit. 

Sugar,  7  ozs. ;  rind  and  juice  of  lemons,  2 ;  sherry,  2 
large  wine-glasses  full ;  brandy,  2  wine-glasses  full ; 
cream,  1  pint. 

Obs. — These  proportions  are  sufficient  for  two  dozen  or 
more  of  syllabubs  :  they  are  often  made  with  almost  equal 
quantities  of  wine  and  cream,  but  are  certainly  neither  so 
good  nor  so  wholesome  without  a  portion  of  brandy. 

GOOD  COMMON  BLANC  MANGE. 

Infuse  for  an  hour,  in  a  pint  and  three  quarters  of  new 
milk,  the  very  thin  rind  of  one  small,  or  of  half  a  large 

7 


146 

lemon,  and  eight  bitter  almonds,  blanched  and  bruised ; 
then  add  two  ounces  of  sugar,  or  rather  more  for  persons 
who  like  the  blanc  mange  very  sweet,  and  an  ounce  and 
a  half  of  isinglass.  Boil  them  gently  over  a  clear  fire, 
stirring  them  often  until  this  last  is  dissolved  ;  take  off  the 
scum,  stir  in  half  a  pint  of  rich  cream,  and  strain  the 
blanc  mange  into  a  bowl :  it  should  be  moved  gently  with 
a  spoon  till  nearly  cold,  to  prevent  the  cream  settling  on 
the  surface.  Before  it  is  moulded,  mix  with  it  by  degrees 
a  wine-glass  full  of  brandy. 

New  milk,  If  pint;  rind  of  lemon,  ±  large,  or  whole 
small  one ;  bitter  almonds,  8 :  infuss  1  hour.  Sugar,  2 
to  3  ozs. ;  isinglass,  1^  oz. :  10  minutes.  Cream,  -i  pint; 
brandy,  1  wine-glass  full. 

RICHER  BLANC  MANGE. 

A  pint  of  good  cream,  with  a  pint  of  new  milk,  sweet- 
ened and  flavored  as  above,  or  with  a  little  additional 
sugar,  and  the  rind  of  one  very  fresh  lemon,  with  the 
same  proportion  of  isinglass,  will  make  very  good  blanc 
mange.  An  ounce  of  Jordan  almonds  may  be  pounded 
and  mixed  with  it,  but  they  are  not  needed  with  the 
cream, 

CUSTARD. 

Boil  in  a  quart  of  milk  a  few  peach-leaves  or  a  stick  of 
cinnamon.  Beat  with  four,  or  if  you  prefer,  six  eggs,  two 
or  three  large  spoonfuls  of  brown  sugar.  Add  the  milk, 
and  bake  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes. 

FINE  ALMOND  CAKE. 

Blanch,  dry,  and  pound  to  the  finest  possible  paste  eight 
punces  of  fresh  Jordan  almonds,  and  one  ounce  of  bitter; 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  147 

moisten  them  with  a  few  drops  of  cold  water  or  white  of 
egg,  to  prevent  their  oiling  ;  then  mix  with  them  very  grad- 
ually twelve  fresh  eggs  which  have  been  whisked  until 
they  are  exceedingly  light ;  throw  in  by  degrees  one  pound 
of  fine,  dry,  sifted  sugar,  and  keep  the  mixture  light  by 
constant  beating,  with  a  large  wooden  spoon,  as  the  sepa- 
rate ingredients  •  are  added.  Mix  in  by  degrees  three- 
quarters  of  a  pound  of  dried  and  sifted  flour  of  the  best 
quality;  then  pour  gently  from  the  sediment  a  pound  of 
butter  which  has  been  just  melted,  but  not  allowed  to  be- 
come hot,  and  beat  it  very  gradually  but  very  thoroughly 
into  the  cake,  letting  one  portion  entirely  disappear  before 
another  is  thrown  in  ;  add  the  rasped  or  finely-grated  rinds 
of  two  sound  fresh  lemons,  fill  a  thickly  buttered  mould 
rather  more  than  half  full  with  the  mixture,  and  bake  the 
cake  from  an  hour  and  a  half  to  two  hours  in  a  well-heat- 
ed oven.  Lay  paper  over  the  top  when  it  is  sufficiently 
colored,  and  guard  carefully  against  its  being  burned. 

Almonds,  ^  Ib.  ;  bitter  almonds,  1  oz. ;  eggs,  12;  su- 
gar, 1  Ib. ;  flour,  £  Ib. ;  butter,  1  Ib. ;  rinds,  lemons,  2 : 
1|  to  2  hours. 

Obs. — Three-quarters  of  a  pound  of  almonds  may  be 
mixed  with  this  cake  when  so  large  a  portion  of  them  is 
liked,  but  an  additional  ounce  or  two  of  sugar,  and  one  egg 
or  more,  will  then  be  required. 

POUND  CAKE. 

Mix,  as  directed  in  the  foregoing  receipt,  ten  eggs,  (some 
cooks  take  a  pound  in  weight  of  these,)  one  pound  of  su- 
gar, one  of  flour,  and  the  same  of  butter.  A  glass  of  bran- 
dy and  a  pound  of  currants  may  be  added  very  gradually 
just  before  the  cake  is  put  into  the  oven,  with  any  spice 
that  is  liked,  and  two  or  three  ounces  of  candied  orange  or 
lemon  rind,  sliced  thin,  or  an  ounce  of  caraway  seeds 


148  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

may  supply  the  place  of  all.     A  cake  made  with  half  the 
quantity  of  the  ingredients  must  be  baked  one  hour 

A  RICH  WEDDING  CAKE. 

One  pound  of  flour,  one  pound  of  butter,  one  pound  of 
sugar,  ten  eggs,  one  gill  of  brandy,  two  pounds  currants, 
two  and  a  half  pounds  of  raisins,  half  a  pound  citron,  half 
ounce  mace,  half  ounce  cinnamon,  two  nutmegs,  one  spoon- 
ful ginger,  and  half  a  wine-glass  of  rose-water. 

The  currants  should  be  washed  and  cleaned  the  day 
previous ;  dry  them  by  rubbing  in  a  coarse  napkin,  and 
then  spread  them  upon  a  large  dish  to  dry.  Stone  the -rai- 
sins and  cut  them  in  halves ;  sprinkle  the  currants  and 
raisins  well  with  flour ;  mix  the  brandy  and  rose-water  in 
a  cup,  adding  thereto  the  spice  pounded  fine ;  sift  your 
flour ;  if  you  use  brown  sugar,  dry  and  roll  it ;  if  white 
sugar,  crush  it  and  pass  it  through  a  coarse  sieve.  Now 
stir  the  butter  and  sugar  together  to  a  light,  creamy  state  ; 
beat  your  eggs  very  light,  and  stir  them  into  the  butter  and 
sugar ;  to  this  mixture  add  gradually  a  part  of  the  flour, 
and  then  stir  in  the  spices  and  the  liquor  as  above  ;  now 
add  the  remainder  of  the  flour,  and  the  currants  and  rai- 
sins alternately. ;  stir  the  whole  a  few  minutes  ;  now  but- 
ter a  large  tin  pan,  and  cover  the  bottom  and  sides  of  it 
with  sheets  of  white  paper  well  buttered  ;  then  put  into  the 
pan  some  of  the  cake  as  above  mixed,  and  spread  upon  it 
a  few  shreds  or  strips  of  the  citron ;  then  another  portion 
of  the  cake,  and  upon  it  some  citron ;  and  so  on  till  the 
whole  is  in  the  pan. 

It  will  require  four  or  five  hours'  baking. 

APPLE  SAUCE 

(Good.) 
Put  a  table-spoonful  of  water  into  a  quart  basin,  and  fill 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  149 

it  with  good  boiling  apples,  pared,  quartered,  and  carefully 
cored  ;  put  a  plate  over,  and  set  them  into  a  moderate  oven 
for  ahout  an  hour,  or  until  they  are  reduced  quite  to  a 
pulp  ;  beat  them  smooth  with  a  clean  wooden  spoon,  add- 
ing to  them  a  little  sugar,  and  a  morsel  of  fresh  butter, 
when  these  are  liked,  though  they  will  scarcely  be  re- 
quired. 

The  sauce  made  thus  is  far  superior  to  that  which  is 
boiled.  When  no  other  oven  is  at  hand,  a  Dutch  or  an 
American  one  would  probably  answer  for  it  ;  but  we 
cannot  assert  this  on  our  own  experience. 

Good  boiling  apples,  1  quart  :  baked  one  hour  (more  or 
less,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  fruit,  and  temperature 
of  the  oven)  ;  sugar,  1  oz.  ;  butter,  £  oz. 


COMMON  PUDDING  SAUCE. 

Sweeten  a  quarter-pint  of  good  melted  butter  with  an 
ounce  and  a  half  of  sugar,  and  add  to  it  gradually  a  cou- 
ple of  glasses  of  wine  ;  stir  it  until  it  is  on  the  point  of 
boiling.  Lemon-grate,  or  nutmeg,  can  be  added  at  plea- 
sure. 

PORK  AND  BEANS. 

Take  one  quart  of  driod  beans,  and  after  picking  them 
over,  put  into  a  vessel  and  cover  them  over  with  soft  wa- 
ter. This  should  be  done  the  night  before  they  are  wanted 
for  use.  Set  them  in  the  corner  of  the  fire-place,  or  where 
thr-y  will  be  warm,  and  let  them  remain  over  night.  In 
tho  morning  change  the  water,  and  let  them  heat  gradu- 
ally, but  not  boil,  until  they  are  perfectly  swollen.  Then 
take  one  pound  of  pork,  (that  which  has  some  lean  is  gen- 
erally preferred,)  gash  the  rind,  and  after  skimming  out 
the  beans  from  the  water,  put  with  the  beans  and  boil  un- 
til soft,  in  water  sufficient  to  cover  them.  Then  take  out 


150 

the  beans  and  put  into  a  pan,  laying  the  pork  in  the  centre 
with  the  rind  above  the  surface.  Bake  from  one  to  three 
hours. 

OBSERVATIONS  ON  PICKLES. 

The  first  requisite  in  making  pickles  is  to  have  unadul- 
terated vinegar,  for  all  the  expense  and  trouble  bestowed 
upon  them  is  often  entirely  lost  in  consequence  of  ingre- 
dients beingr  mixed  with  this,  which  soften  arid  sometimes 
even  partially  decompose  the  substances  immersed  in  it. 
That  which  is  home-made  is  generally  found  for  all  pur- 
poses to  answer  best,  and  it  may  be  prepared  of  almost  any 
degree  of  strength  by  increasing  the  ordinary  proportion 
of  fruit  and  sugar,  or  whatever  else  may  be  used  for  it. 
The  refuse  of  cider,  wine,  &c.,  &c.,  may  be  converted 
into  excellent  vinegar :  but  unless  the  pickles  be  quite  cov- 
ered with  their  liquor,  and  well  protected  from  the  air  and 
from  the  influence  of  damp,  which  is  more  than  any  thing 
destructive  of  them,  the  purity  of  the  vinegar  will  not  pre- 
serve them  eatable.  We  can  confidently  recommend  to 
the  reader  the  rather  limited  number  of  receipts  which 
follow,  and  which  might  easily  be  multiplied  did  the  size 
of  our  volume  permit.  Pickling  is  so  easy  a  process,  how- 
ever, that  when  in  any  degree  properly  acquired,  it  may 
be  extended  to  almost  every  kind  of  fruit  and  vegetable 
successfully.  A  few  of  the  choicer  kinds  will  neverthe- 
less be  found  generally  more  acceptable  than  a  greater  va- 
riety of  inferior  preparations.  Mushrooms,  gherkins,  wal- 
nuts, lemons,  and  peaches,  for  all  of  which  we  have  given 
minute  directions,  will  furnish  as  much  choice  as  is  com- 
monly required. 

PICKLED  ONIONS. 
Take  the  smallest  onions  that  can  be  procured,  just  after 


151 

they  are  harvested,  for  they  are  never  in  so  good  a  state 
for  the  purpose  as  then ;  proceed,  after  having  peeled 
them,  exactly  as  for  the  eschalots,  and  when  they  begin  to 
look  clear,  which  will  be  in  three  or  four  minutes,  put  them 
into  jars,  and  pour  the  pickle  on  them.  The  vinegar 
should  be  very  pale,  and  their  color  will  then  be  exceed- 
ingly well  preserved.  Any  favorite  spices  can  be  added 
to  it, 

TO  PICKLE  PEPPERS. 

Take  small  green  peppers,  and  if  you  wish  them  mild, 
take  out  the  seeds.  Soak  the  peppers  in  salt  and  water  a 
few  days,  changing  the  water  every  other  day.  Drain 
them,  and  put  into  jars,  or  bottles,  and  pour  over  them 
sharp,  good  vinegar.  Add  mustard-seed,  and  a  few  small 
green  tomatoes,  if  you  like. 

TO  PICKLE  CABBAGE. 

Pull  off  the  loose  leaves,  and  cut  the  cabbage  into  shreds 
with  a  sharp  knife ;  then  sprinkle  a  little  salt  in  the  bot- 
tom of  a  keg  or  jar ;  then  put  in  a  layer  of  cabbage,  and 
sprinkle  salt,  peppercorns,  a  little  mace,  cinnamon,  and 
allspice  ;  then  add  another  layer,  and  add  spices  and  salt, 
as  before.  Continue  these  alternate  layers,  etc.,  until 
your  jar  is  full.  Heat  your  vinegar  scalding  hot,  put  in 
a  little  alum,  and  turn  it  while  hot  on  the  cabbage.  Turn 
the  vinegar  from  the  cabbage  six  or  seven  times,  heat  it 
scalding  hot,  and  turn  it  back  while  hot,  to  make  them 
tender. 

TO  PICKLE  CUCUMBERS. 

Gather  those  that  are  small  and  green,  and  let  them  re- 
main in  the  shade  until  the  next  day ;  then  rinse  and  dry 
gently  with  a  cloth,  so  as  to  remove  the  black  specks. 
Have  ready  some  cold  vinegar,  with  alum  and  salt  in 


152  THE 

proportion  of  a  large  spoonful  of  alum,  and  a  tea-cup  of 
salt  to  a  gallon  of  vinegar.  Throw  in  your  cucumbers, 
which  will  require  to  be  picked  every  other  day.  When 
you  have  done  collecting  them,  turn  the  vinegar  from 
the  cucumbers,  scald  and  skim  it  till  clear ;  then  put  in 
the  pickles,  let  them  scald,  without  boiling,  for  half  an 
hour,  then  turn  them  while  hot  into  the  vessel  you  wish 
lo  keep  them  in.  If  you  wish  them  spiced,  you  can  pul- 
verize pepper,  cloves,  allspice  and  mace,  tie  them  in  a 
cloth,  and  throw  into  the  vinegar  after  it  is  skimmed,  and 
let  them  scald  with  the  cucumbers.  Should  your  vine- 
gar become  weak,  throw  it  away,  and  put  fresh  to  the 
cucumbers  with  the  spices.  Whenever  any  scum  rises 
the  vinegar  needs  scalding.  String-beans  and  radish 
pods,  make  a  very  nice  pickle.  Keep  them  in  salt  and 
water,  while  collecting  them,  changing  the  water  as 
often  as  once  in  four  or  five  days.  Scald  them  in  hot 
salt  and  water ;  let  them  lie  until  cool,  and  then  pour  on 
hot  vinegar  and  spice. 

TO  MAKE   SOFT  SOAP. 

Save  all  your  ashes  in  a  dry  place.  Take  a  good 
strong  barrel,  bore  a  large  hole  in  the  bottom,  and  place 
it  on  some  blocks  of  wood,  to  raise  it  from  the  ground 
sufficiently  high  to  set  a  pail  or  a  kettle  under  it.  Then 
place  on  the  bottom  of  the  barrel  inside,  three  or  four 
bricks  or  pieces  of  wood,  and  a  wisp  or  two  of  clean 
straw  on  the  top  of  them.  Then  fill  the  barrel  with  ashes. 
Then  add  sufficient  cold  water  to  wet  the  ashes  thorough- 
ly. Let  it  soak  thus  for  three  days.  After  this,  add  a 
gallon  of  water  every  hour  or  two,  for  two  days,  and  let 
it  drop  from  the  hole  in  the  barrel,  into  a  tub  beneath. 
Keep  it  dripping  until  the  lye  loses  its  color.  Sometimes, 
it  is  necessary  to  add  fresh  ashes  to  the  barrel.  You 


THE    EMIGRANT  S    HAND-BOOK.  153 

can  tell  whether  it  is  necessary  to  do  so,  by  the  color  of 
the  drippings.  If  the  lye  is  a  good  amber-color  it  is  all 
right ;  if  it  is  pale,  it  needs  more  ashes.  Good  lye 
should  be  strong  enough  to  bear  up  a  potatoe  or  an  egg. 

You  must  try  this  as  you  proceed. 

To  make  a  barrel  of  soap,  you  must  have  the  lye 
from  five  or  six  bushels  of  ashes,  and  four  quarts  of  un- 
slacked  lime ;  eight  quarts  if  it  be  slacked. 

The  next  step  is  to  put  the  lime  into  two  pails  of  boil- 
ing water,  throw  it  into  the  barrel  of  ashes  and  let  it 
drain  through. 

Then  take  three  pounds  of  grease  to  each  pailful  of 
lye — put  all  these  into  a  large  kettle  to  boil.  Let  them 
boil  together  until  they  become  thick  and  ropy,  which 
makes  the  soap.  A  small  bit  of  lime  thrown  in  while 
the  boiling  is  going  on,  is  of  use. 

The  above  soap  can  be  made  without  the  trouble  of 
boiling,  although  it  takes  a  longer  time.  The  mode  is 
this: 

Prepare  the  lye  as  in  the  above  plan.  Fry  out  the 
grease,  and  strain  it  from  the  scraps.  Take  two  pounds 
of  this  tried  grease  to  each  pailful  of  lye,  and  mix  it  with 
the  lye,  the  latter  being  heated. 

Then  let  it  stand  in  the  sun,  and  stir  it  thoroughly 
every  day,  and  soap  will  come  in  a  few  days.  If  it  do 
not  look  like  soap  in  five  or  six  days,  add  a  little  hot  lye 
to  it ;  if  it  does  not  "  come,"  then  add  a  little  grease. 

TO  MAKE  CHEAP  CANDLES. 

Save  all  the  beef  and  mutton  tallow  you  can.  Try 
it  out  from  time  to  time  as  you  can  get  it,  and  make  it 
into  little  cakes  for  preservation.  When  you  wish  to 
make  your  candles,  melt  your  tallow  and  put  it  into  some 
vessel  with  a  wide  mouth  ;  a  large-sized  iron  pot  is  a 

7* 


154 

good  one.  The  wicks  should  have  been  previously  pre- 
pared, in  a  way  familiar  to  almost  every  housekeeper. 
Should  any  emigrant  not  understand  it,  any  neighbor 
will  show  him  how  it  is  done.  Candle-wicking  can 
be  procured  at  any  of  the  country  stores.  It  is  necessa- 
ry to  keep  the  liquid  hot  while  the  dipping  is  going  on.  As 
the  tallow  decreases  in  the  pot  by  dipping,  hot  water 
should  be  added  to  keep  the  tallow  at  the  surface.  The 
candles  should  not  be  cooled  too  quickly,  lest  they  should 
crack. 

A  better  description  of  candles  may  be  thus  made. 
Melt  together  ten  ounces  .of  mutton  tallow,  a  quarter  oi 
an  ounce  of  camphor,  four  ounces  of  beeswax,  and  two 
ounces  of  alum  ;  and  then  run  it  into  moulds  as  usual, 
or  dip  the  candles.  These  candles  furnish  a  beautiful 
light. 

TO  MAKE  HARD  WATER  SOFT. 

While  the  water  is  heating,  take  two  quarts  of  wheat 
bran,  put  this  in  a  bag  and  place  it  in  the  water,  and  the 
water,  when  hot  enough  for  use,  will  be  soft.  This  is 
enough  for  a  common  washing. 

Another  method  is  to  use  soda.  A  few  ounces  of  this 
will  soften  a  hogshead  of  water.  It  will  give  a  delicate 
whiteness  to  the  linen,  without  the  slightest  injury,  and 
will  not  affect  the  hands.  It  costs  but  little,  and  is  a  great 
relief  to  those  who  cannot  procure  rain  or  other  soft  water. 

TO  MAKE  VINEGAR. 

Take  a  clean  oaken-barrel,  or  wine-cask,  place  it  in  a 
warm  room  ;  if  in  the  summer  time,  in  a  hot  place  where 
the  sun  will  strike  on  it ;  put  in  one,  two,  or  more  gallons 
of  clear  fermented  cider ;  leave  the  bung  out,  so  that  the 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.      •  .  155 

air  may  have  free  circulation.     In  two  or  three  weeks  it 
will  be  fit  for  use. 

Cider  may  then  be  added,  from  time  to  time,  in  small 
quantities,  taking  care  that  no  larger  quantity  of  it  be 
added  at  any  one  time  than  there  is  vinegar  in  the  cask. 

LABOR  SAVING  SOAP. 

To  make  it,  take  two  pounds  of  sal.  soda,  two  pounds 
of  yellow  bar  soap,  ten  quarts  of  water,  or  in  like  proportion. 
Cut  the  soap  into  thin  slices,  and  boil  altogether  two  hours, 
and  then  strain  through  a  cloth  into  a  tight  box  or  tub  ;  let 
it  cool,  and  it  is  fit  for  use.  Do  not  let  it  freeze. 

To  use  it :  put  the  clothes  in  soak  the  night  before  you 
wash.  The  next  morning  put  your  water  into  your  kettle 
or  boiler.  To  every  two  pails  of  water,  add  about  one  pound 
of  the  soap.  As  soon  as  the  water  with  its  dissolved  soap 
begins  to  boil,  wring  out  the  clothes  from  the  water  in 
which  they  had  been  at  soak  during  the  night,  and  put 
them  into  the  boiling  water,  without  any  rubbing.  Let 
them  boil  one  hour,  then  suds  and  rinse  them,  and  they 
will  be  clean  and  white.  They  will  need  no  rubbing, 
except  a  little  on  such  places  as  are  soiled,  and  for  that 
no  wash-board  will  be  required.  The  clothes  should  be 
rinsed  in  two  waters. 

Colored  and  woollen  clothes  must  not  be  boiled  as  above, 
but  may  be  washed  in  the  suds  weakened  with  water. 
The  clothes  will  last  longer  by  the  use  of  this  soap,  and 
much  labor  will  be  saved. 

Six  pounds  of  sal.  soda,  six  pounds  of  bar  soap,  and 
thirty  quarts  of  water,  will  make  about  fifty  pounds  of 
the  soap.  The  soda  costs  about  eight  cents  a  pound,  and 
the  bar  soap  eight  cents  a  pound. 

A  pint  measure  will  hold  a  pound  of  the  labor-saving 
soap.  This  will  savo  the  trouble  of  weighing  every  time. 


156 

TO  PREPARE  SOUSE, 

Pigs-feet,  oars,  etc.,  make  a  cheap  and  excellent  dish. 
In  preparing  them,  clean  them  ttjorooshiy  in  water  not 
very  hot ;  then  peel  the  hoofs  off  with'  a  snarp-pointed 
knife  ;  cut  off  the  hard,  rough  places ;  then  singe  them 
and  boil  them  until  they  are  thoroughly  tender,  or  till 
they  are  with  difficulty  taken  out  with  a  fork,  say  five 
hours.  Take  them  olit,  and  put  them  in  cold  water. 
Mind  and  save  the  liquor  in  which  they  were  boiled. 

Take  the  bones  out  and  pack  the  meat  down  tight  in  a 
wooden  or  stone  vessel.  After  it  is  packed  close,  boil  the 
jelly-like  liquor  in  which  they  were  cooked,  with  an  equal 
quantity  of  vinegar,  for  four  hours.  Put  in  as  much  salt 
as  you  think  necessary,  and  add  cloves,  allspice  and  cin- 
namon, at  the  rate  of  about  a  quarter  of  a  pound  to  one 
hundred  weight  jof  the  meat.  The  vinegar,  with  these 
ingredients  added,  is  to  be  poured  upon  the  souse  scalding 
hot.  When  used,  fry  it. 

SALTED  CODFISH. 

Salted  codfish  is  very  much  used  in  the  United  States, 
and  is  cheap,  and  usually  kept  for  sale  at  all  the  country 
stores.  Emigrants  are  sometimes,  indeed,  generally  un- 
acquainted with  the  proper  mode  of  cooking  it,  although 
it  is  very  simple. 

The  fish  should  be  soaked  in  lukewarm  water  until  the 
skin  will  easily  come  off,  then  take  up  the  fish,  scrape  off 
the  skin,  and  put  it  in  fresh  cold  water.  Then  set  it  on 
a  very  moderate  fire,  where  it  will  be  very  hot,  but  with- 
out boiling.  It  will  take  three  or  four  hours  to  cook  it 
soft.  Dish  it  and  use  with  drawn-butter,  with  boiled  po- 
tatoes. It  makes  a  most  excellent  dish. 

It  makes  a  very  nice  dish  for  breakfast,  to  take  the 
remains  of  the  dinner,  and  hash  them  up  with  potatoes, 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  157 

moistened  with  water  and  a  good  deal  of  butter,  ail  warmed 
together, 

TO  PRESERVE  CABBAGES. 

Gather  them  before  the  severe  fall  frosts.  Let  the 
coarse  outside  leaves  remain  on  them.  Fix  a  strong  string 
around  the  stalk  ;  and  suspend  the  cabbage  from  the  timbers 
of  the  ceiling,  heads  downward.  The  cellar  should  be 
cool  and  dry.  This  will  preserve  them  with  certainty. 

Another  good  method  is  to  cut  the  head  from  the  stump, 
pack  close  in  a  cask,  taking  care  to  fill  up  all  the  vacan- 
cies with  dry  chaff,  or  bran,  and  keep  in  a  dry  cellar. 

TO  KEEP  HAMS  DURING  THE  SUMMER. 

Take  an  old  flour-barrel,  or  other  dry  cask,  put  a  good 
layer  of  coarse  salt  in  the  bottom,  and  then  put  down  a 
ham  ;  cover  that  with  coarse  salt,  and  put  down  another 
ham,  and  so  on  till  the  cask  is  full,  or  all  put  in. 

Put  the  cask  in  a  cool,  dry  place  ;  and  the  hams  will 
all  come  out  perfectly  good,  provided  they  went  in  good. 

TO  MAKE  HOMMONY. 

In  the  first  place,  you  must  have  a  mortar.  The 
following  is  a  description  of  one  which  you  can  make 
in  a  few  minutes.  Cut  a  block  twenty  inches  long, 
and  about  ten  inches  in  diameter,  from  a  sound  white- 
oak  ;  dress  one  end  smooth  ;  mark  out  a  square,  six 
by  six  inches  ;  seven  inches  from  the  head  saw  in  around 
the  block  about  three  inches  deep,  then  shape  the  head  to 
the  square  as  prescribed  ;  cut  into  the  block  so  as  to  form 
a  flare  in  the  shape  of  a  wine-glass  ;  take  off  from  a  board 
four  pieces  eighteen  inches  long ;  fit  them  snugly  to  this 
head,  the  top  to  flare  in  the  clear  eleven  or  twelve  inches, 
and  secure  them  with  nails.  For  the  pestle  take  an  iron 


158 

Wedge,  and  a  round  stick  about  the  size  of  the  wedge  ; 
split  one  end  ;  enter  the  wedge  about  two  inches  ;  let  an 
iron  ring  over  the  other  end,  that  will  fall  down  over  the 
thin  end  of  the  wedge,  and  you  have  a  mortar  and  pestle 
at  your  hand. 

The  next  is  some  white  corn,  large  round  grain,  (not 
gourd  seed)  cut  the  tip  ends  off,  shell  none  but  what  is  ripe 
and  sound,  that  which  is  tight  on  the  cob  ;  take  one  gallon 
more  or  less,  and  pour  boiling  water  to  it ;  let  it  stand 
about  fifteen  minutes,  then  commence  beating  ;  take  it  out 
occasionally,  and  blow  out  the  hulls.  When  you  find  the 
grains  all  broken,  put  it  into  water  and  wash  it,  and  float 
off  all  of  the  light  stuff  that  may  arise  ;  then  put  it  into  the 
pot  for  boiling.  Three  or  four  hours  are  sufficient.  Have 
a  kettle  of  hot  water  at  hand  to  fill  up  occasionally  ;  stir 
it  often,  otherwise  it  will  burn,  which  injures  it  very  much. 
If  you  wish  to  put  in  beans,  one  pint  to  a  gallon  of  hom- 
mony  is  sufficient.  When  done,  stir  in  as  much  fine  salt 
as  would  be  required  to  season  mush,  then  put  it  into  stone 
or  tin  vessels.  Set  it  in  a  cool  place  not  to  freeze.  When 
wanted  for  use,  take  the  quantity  necessary  for  breakfast 
or  dinner,  having  put  a  small  quantity  of  lard  into  the 
pan.  Let  it  become  hot ;  then  put  in  the  hommonr  and 
mash  it  up  well,  and  when  hot  it  is  fit  for  the  table. 

TOMATO  FIGS. 

The  medicinal  qualities  of  tomatoes  have  greatly  in- 
creased their  cultivation,  and  every  new  preparation  of 
the  article  is  deserving  consideration.  A  sample  of"  to- 
mato figs  "  has  been  deposited  at  the  patent-office,  of  a 
very  superior  quality.  From  the  taste,  one  should  sup- 
pose all  the  good  qualities  of  the  fruit  are  retained.  In 
appearance,  the  drum  of  tomatoes  resembles  one  of  figs  so 
nearly,  that  they  might  easily  be  mistaken  for  the  same. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  159 

The  sample  was  deposited  by  Mrs.  Steiger,  of  Wash- 
ington  city,  and  the  recipe  was  transmitted  with  it  for 
publication.  It  is  deeply  to  be  regretted  that,  since  the 
periodicals  of  the  day  are  open  to  communications,  so 
many  valuable  improvements  are  lost  to  the  world,  barely 
for  the  want  of  publicity.  Others  may  have  dried  the 
tomatoes  with  a  recipe,  however  less  successful. 

RECIPE. — Take  six  pounds  of  sugar  to  one  peck  (or  six- 
teen  pounds)  of  the  fruit.  Scald  and  remove  the  skin  of 
the  fruit  in  the  usual  way.  Cook  them  over  a  fire,  their 
own  juice  being  sufficient  without  the  addition  of  water, 
until  the  sugar  penetrates  and  they  are  clarified.  They 
are  then  taken  out,  spread  on  dishes,  flattened  and  dried 
in  the  sun.  A  small  quantity  of  the  syrup  should  be  oc- 
casionally sprinkled  over  them  while  drying;  after  which, 
pack  them  down  in  boxes,  treating  each  layer  with  pow. 
dered  sugar.  The  syrup  is  afterward  concentrated  and 
bottled  for  use.  They  keep  well  from  year  to  year,  and 
retain  surprisingly  their  flavor,  which  is  nearly  that  of 
the  best  quality  of  fresh  figs.  The  pear-shaped  or  single 
tomatoes  answer  the  purpose  best.  Ordinary  brown  sugal 
may  be  used,  a  large  portion  of  which  is  retained  in  thv 
syrup. 

TOMATO  CATSUP. 

The  tomatoes,  when  fully  ripe,  should  be  bruised  and 
boiled  slowly  for  half  an  hour ;  then  strained  through  a 
cloth,  and  the  liquid  boiled  anotheq|half  hour,  after  add- 
ing  salt  and  spices,  but  without  any  admixture  of  water. 
The  scum  should  be  carefully  removed,  so  as  to  render 
the  liquor  as  pure  as  possible.  It  should  be  bottled  and 
kept  in  a  cool  place.  ,^er  it  has  stood  a  short  time, 
should  any  sediment  be  discovered  in  the  bottles,  (and  in 
order  to  know  with  certainty,  clear  bottles  would  be  the 


160  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

best  for  this  use,)  the  liquor  should  be  poured  off  into  other 
bottles.  In  this  way,  catsup  of  excellent  quality — prefer- 
able  to  that  from  mushrooms,  and  clear  as  choice  Madeira 
— can  be  readily  made,  in  greater  quantity  and  with  less 
trouble  than  in  the  common  way. 

THE  RAW  TOMATO. 

In  this  state,  the  ripe  fruit  should  be  picked  from  the 
vine  and  sliced  up  in  vinegar  like  cucumbers,  with  a  lit- 
tle oil,  pepper,  and  salt ;  or  it  may  be  eaten  like  ripe  fruit, 
without  seasoning. 

TOMATO  SAUCE. 

Parboil  the  ripe  tomato  until  the  skin  will  slip ;  peel 
and  mash  them  ;  and  add  to  every  pound  of  tomatoes  one 
ounce  of  butter ;  season  with  pepper  and  salt,  and  sim- 
mer over  a  slow  fire  until  perfectly  cooked.  If,  however, 
toast  should  be  added  to  the  sauce,  the  proportion  of  but- 
ter  should  be  increased. 

FRIED  TOMATO. 

Ripe  tomatoes,  sliced  up  and  fried  in  butter,  are,  to 
many,  quite  delicious. 

TOMATO  PICKLES. 

Pickles  are  made  of  the  green  fruit,  by  the  same  pro- 
cess that  you  would  observe  in  the  pickling  of  cucumbers, 
or  any  other  articles^  The  ripe  fruit  may  likewise  be 
pickled,  and,  in  fact,  is  a  preferable  article,  as  it  is  in  that 
case  highly  medicinal,  and  has  a  much  better  flavor. 

TO  PREPARE  GREEN  CORN  FOR  USE  IN  WINTER. 

Take  a  large  copper  boiler  of  boiling  water,  and  fill  it 
with  ears  of  husked  corn  such  as  are  used  for  roasting 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  161 

ears ;  and  after  boiling  about  ten  minutes,  scrape  off  the 
corn 'with  an  iron  spoon,  and  spread  it  in  the  sun  to  dry, 
either  on  plates,  boards,  or  cloths.  When  thoroughly 
dried,  it  is  hung  up  in  bags,  and  makes  in  the  winter  a 
most  delightful  dish— almost  as  good  as  fresh  green  com. 

The  best  kind  is  the  sweet  corn,  of  which  the  best  va- 
.riety  is  that  which  shrinks  most  in  drying. 

HOW  TO  COOK  STRING  BEANS. 

There  is  a  way  to  cook  this  vegetable,  by  which  it  is 
very  much  improved  both  in  appearance  and  flavor.  The 
pods  are  split  (not  opened  at  the  edges,  but  in  an  opposite 
direction,)  from  end  to  end,  and  then  cut  into  short  pieces 
as  in  the  usual  way  ;  they  are  then  boiled  in  any  suitable 
vessel,  separate  from  meat  or  other  vegetables,  a  small 
quantity  of  pearlash  or  saleratus  having  been  thrown 
into  the  water.  When  taken  from  the  water,  after  having 
been  sufficiently  cooked,  they  are  of  a  beautiful  bright- 
green  color,  and  will  be  found  much  more  tender  and 
delicate  than  when  cooked  without  the  saleratus.  They 
are,  of  course,  to  be  seasoned  according  to  your  own  taste. 

HOW  TO  COOK  GREEN  PEAS. 

The  common  method  of  cooking  this  delicious  vegetable, 
by  boiling  in  water,  is  nearly  destructive  to  its  flavor — at 
least  so  says  a  lady,  who  gives  the  following  method  of 
preparing  them  for  the  table :  «  Place  in  the  bottom  of 
your  sauce-pan  or  boiler,  several  of  the  outside  leaves 
of  head  salad  ;  put  your  peas  in  the  dish  with  two  ounces 
of  butter  in  proportion  to  half  a  peck  of  peas ;  cover  the 
pan  or  boiler  close,  and  place  it  over  the  fire ;  in  thirty 
minutes  they  are  ready  .for  the  table.  They  can  either 
be  seasoned  in  the  pan  or  taken  out.  Water  extracts 
nearly  all  the  delicious  quality  of  the  green  pea,  and  is 
as  fatal  to  their  flavor  as  it  is  destructive  to  a  mad  dog." 


182 

WASHINGTON  CAKE. 
So  called,  because  it  was  a  favorite  at  the  table  of  Gen.  Washington. 

Take  two  pounds  of  flour,  one  quart  of  milk,  with  an 
ounce  of  butter,  heated  together ;  put  the  milk  and  butter 
into  the  flour  when  about  lukewarm,  add  a  cent's  worth 
of  yeast,  three  eggs,  and  a  tea-spoonful  of  salt ;  place  it 
in  pans  over  night,  and  bake  it  in  the  morning  in  a  quick 
oven  for  three-quarters  of  an  hour. 

TO  CURE  HAMS  IN  A  CHEAP  MANNER. 

Lay  your  hams  in  tubs,  if  convenient,  flesh  side  up ; 
sprinkle  salt  on  the  fleshy  part ;  let  them  drain  twenty- 
four  hours  ;  then  rub  off  the  salt,  and  lay  them  in  a  large 
tub.  Then  prepare  a  brine  by  dissolving  one  pound  of 
salt  in  one  gallon  of  water,  and  to  every  six  pounds  of  salt 
three  and  a  half  ounces  of  saltpetre.  Make  a  sufficient 
quantity  to  cover  the  hams.  Boil  the  brine,  taking  off  the 
scum,  and  while  boiling-hot  pour  it  over  the  hams.  Let 
them  lie  in  the  brine  six  weeks,  then  take  them  out,  drain 
them,  and  smoke  them. 

Smoking  hams  is  done  as  follows :  Make  a  smoke  with 
corn-cobs,  if  you  have  them — if  not,  with  sound  hard 
wood,  with  damp  saw-dust  thrown  over  the  fire  to  prevent 
a  blaze.  Suspend  your  hams  above  this  at  a  distance,  to 
receive  the  most  of  the  smoke.  When  they  are  a  good 
brown  color,  which  will  be  in  about  three  weeks,  they 
are  smoked  sufficiently.* 

They  should  then  be  dried.  When  dry,  sew  any  kind 
of  cotton  cloth  over  them,  and  whitewash  the  outside ;  or 
if  you  have  plenty  of  ashes  in  a  dry  place,  cover  the 
hams  with  paper,  and  bury  them  in  ashes  till  wanted  for 
use.  This  preserves  them  from  bugs,  and  it  is  thought 
to  improve  their  flavor. 

*  To  make  Westphalia  Hams,  see  Index 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  163 

THE  VIRGINIA  MODE  OF  CURING  HAMS. 

Dissolve  two  ounces  of  saltpetre,  and  two  tea-spoonful8 
of  saleratus,  in  salt  pickle  (salt  and  water,)  as  strong  as 
possible  ;  for  every  sixteen  pounds  of  ham,  add  half  a 
pint  of  molasses.  Then  put  the  hams  into  the  pickle,  and 
let  them  remain  three  or  four  weeks ;  then  take  them  out 
and  smoke  them  with  the  hocks  downward,  to  preserve 
the  juices. 

TO  MAKE  POTATO  STARCH. 

Take  raw  potatoes,  pare  them,  and  grate  them  ;  place 
the  pulp  in  a  strainer  ;  pour  cold  water  a  number  of  times 
on  the  pulp  while  in  the  strainer,  and  catch  the  water  in 
a  vessel  underneath.  A  white  substance  will  be  found 
in  the  bottom  of  this  vessel.  Now  turn  the  water  off, 
and  when  the  sediment  is  perfectly  dried,  it  is  starch. 

TO  IMPROVE  THE  FLAVOR  OF  MOLASSES. 

The  use  of  molasses,  or  treacle,  in  the  United  States, 
is  very  great,  and  it  can  be  had  at  almost  every  country 
store.  Some  people  dislike  the  peculiar  flavor  of  molas- 
ses and  the  following  is  a  mode  by  which  it  may  be  much 
improved.  It  will  then  answer  for  sweetening  tea  and 
coffee,  or  for  preserves,  cake,  and  the  like. 

Take  such  quantity  of  molasses  as  may  be  desired ; 
add  to  it  an  equal  weight  of  soft,  pure  water ;  boil  these, 
with  about  one-eighth  part  of  powdered  charcoal,  for  half 
an  hour.  Strain  the  whole,  and  let  it  evaporate  slowly, 
till  it  is  of  the  usual  thickness  of  molasses. 

This  is  well  worth  trying  by  those  who  desire  a  goo 
and  cheap  article  of  sweetening. 

PRESERVING  BREAD  MOIST. 

The  other  day,  says  an  editor,  I  saw  a  lady,  on  taking 
her  bread  out  of  the  oven,  wash  her  loaves  with  cold 


164  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

water.  I  inquired  the  reasons.  She  said  there  were 
two  objects  in  it — one  to  wash  off  the  ashes  and  coals  thai 
might  adhere,  and  the  other  to  keep  the  bread  from  becom- 
ing too  dry  and  hard.  After  washing  the  loaves  mode- 
rately, she  put  them  in  a  barrel,  and  covered  them  closely 
with  a  clean  cloth. 

POTATO  YEAST.       ,. 

To  two  middling-sized  boiled  potatoes,  add  a  pint  of 
boiling  water,  and  two  table-spoonsful  of  brown  sugar. 
One  pint  of  hot  water  should  be  applied  to  every  half  pint 
of  the  compound.  Hot  water- is  better  in  warm  weather. 
This  yeast  being  made  without  flour  will  keep  longer,  and 
is  said  to  be  much  better  than  any  previously  in  use. 

TO  PRESERVE  HAMS  FROM  FLIES. 

For  a  score  of  hams,  take  about  three  quarts  of  salt,  one 
pint  of  molasses,  one-fourth  of  a  pound  of  black  pepper, 
and  two  ounces  of  saltpetre  pulverized  ;  mix  well  to- 
gether ;  lay  the  hams  on  the  table  .with  the  rind  down- 
ward ;  rub  the  mixture  over  them  with  the  hand,  taking 
care  to  apply  it  to  every  part  where  there  is  no  rind  ;  let 
them  lay  a  week,  and  rub  them  over  with  clear  salt,  which 
continue  once  a  week  for  four  or  six  weeks,  according  to 
the  size  of  the  harns,  and  they  are  ready  to  smoke  ;  or  if 
you  choose  after  the  mixture  is  sufficiently  struck  in,  put 
them  into  brine  for  two  or  three  weeks,  and  smoke.  When 
smoked;  hang  them  in  a  dry  place.  When  a  ham  is  cut 
for  use,  hang  it  or  lay  it  where  you  please,  the  flies  will 
not  touch  it. 

Some  persons  preserve  hams,  etc.,  from  flies,  bugs,  etc., 
by  simply  dusting  every  part  except  the  rind,  with  finely 
pulverized  black  pepper. 


SPRUCE  BEER. 

Take  twenty-two  quarts  of  water,  and  two  quarts  of 
molasses ;  a  table-spoonful  of  ginger,  one-fourth  ounce 
essence  of  spruce,  and  one  pint  of  yeast — stir  all  well 
together,  let  it  stand  over  night,  and  bottle  for  use.  It 
should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place  in  warm  weather.  This 
will  be  found  a  good  and  healthy  drink  at  all  seasons  of 
the  year,  but  more  so  for  the  summer  season.  Another 
more  valuable  may  be  made,  called 

"  Minute  Beer"  which  is  to  be  made  in  such  quantities 
as  wanted  for  immediate  use.  Take  as  much  water  as 
may  be  wanted,  say  two  quarts  ;  four  large  spoonsful  of 
moiasses,  same  quantity  of  good  vinegar,  and  half  a  spoon- 
ful of  fine  ginger ;  mix  these  well  together  in  the  water  ; 
then  to  this  mixture  add  half  of  a  large  spoonful  of  sale- 
ratus  in  powder,  and  stir  and  drink  when  in  a  state  of 
effervescence.  This  will  be  found  not  only  a  delicious 
drink  in  warm  weather,  but  also  a  healthy  beverage.  The 
proportions  of  the  articles,  to  be  more  or  less  as  may  be 
the  quantity  of  beer  wanted. 

SAUSAGES. 

Proportion  your  meat  about  half  fat  and  half  lean  ;  cut 
it  fine  ;  then  to  one  hundred  pounds  of  meat  add  two  and 
a  quarter  pounds  of  salt,  ten  ounces  sage,  and  ten  ounces 
of  pepper  made  fine.  Warm  the  meat,  and  mix  them  in 
thoroughly  and  stuff  them,  and  the  thing  is  done  right.  If 
any  wish  to  keep  them  through  the  summer  good  and  fresh, 
put  them  in  a  clean  firkin,  warm  fat  and  pour  in  until  you 
cover  them  ;  cover  and  set  them  in  the  cellar,  and  they 
will  keep  good  the  year  round. 

ANOTHER  MODE. 

Prepare  the  sausage  meat  in  the  .usual  way.  Then, 
instead  of  putting  he  meat  in  skins,  prepared  from  hog's 


J66  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

entrails,  make  bags  of  white  clean  cotton  or  linen  cloth — 
as  large  say,  as  a  man's  arm,  larger  or  smaller,  as  may 
suit,  and  of  convenient  length,  say  about  a  foot  long — and 
put  the  sausage  meat  in  these  bags,  and  hang  them  up  to 
dry.  In  this  way  you  save  much  labor  in  preparing  the 
skins,  and  considerable  in  cooking  :  slip  off  the  bag  from 
so  much  as  is  needed,  and  cut  the  sausage  into  slices  of 

sufficient  thickness  for  cooking. 

• 

CORN  MEAL. 

Corn  meal  should  never  be  ground  very  fine.  It  in- 
jures the  richness  of  it.  Try  it  coarse.  This  is  the  rea- 
son why  western  "  dodgers  "  are  so  good. 

RICE. 

Rice  is  often  over-boiled.  It  should  never  be  boiled  in 
more  water  than  it  will  absorb  while  boiling.  Put  two 
cups  of  rice  in  three  cups  of  water,  and  in  eight  minutes 
after  it  commences  'boiling  it  is  done. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  FULLED  CLOTH. 

BY   J.   M.   111'UIt. 

The  chain  or  warp  should  be  twisted  as  even  as  pos- 
sible, and  all  of  one  kind  of  wool.  The  filling  should  be 
twisted  even  also,  but  not  so  hard  as  the  warp.  The 
filling  for  each  web  or  piece  should  be  spun  by  one  per- 
son, and  all  of  one  sort  of  wool.  Pulled  wool  should  not 
be  mixed  with  shorn,  nor  coarse  with  fine — for  it  will 
make  it  cockle  or  pucker  in  the  mill,  as  pulled  wool  fulls 
much  faster  than  shorn.  If  it  is  intended  to  receive  a 
fine  dress,  the  filling  should  be  of  the  finest  of  your  wool, 
spun  even,  coarse  thread,  and  slack  twisted  ;  but  if  it  is  to 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  167 

be  merely  fulled  and  dyed,  it  makes  but  little  difference 
whether  the  finest  wool  is  in  the  warp  or  filling,  except 
that  which  is  twisted  the  least  will  full  the  fastest. 

[n  weaving  flannel  to  be  fulled,  it  should  be  layed  wide 
— at  least  a  yard — the  wider  the  better,  and  well  beat  up  ; 
get  in  all  the  filling  you  can,  and  then  your  cloth  maybe 
well  fulled  and  still  be  of  good  width,  so  as  to  cut  to  ad- 
vantage. 

If  you  wish  linsey  fulled,  observe  the  same  rules  as  to 
the  filling,  as  for  flannel ;  but  it  makes  no  difference 
whether  the  wool  is  coarse  or  fine,  so  it  is  all  nearly 
alike. 

If  you  want  to  put  pulled  wool  into  the  same  piece  or 
web  with  shorn  wool,  fill  it  on  to  one  end,  so  that  it  can 
be  cut  off  if  it  is  likely  to  be  troublesome  in  fulling. 

It  is  common  in  some  places  for  people  to  dye  their 
cloth  before  it  is  fulled  ;  but  it  is  a  bad  practice — it  fulls 
much  harder,  and  a  portion  of  the  dye  is  beaten  out  in  the 
operation.  Again,  wool  takes  dye  much  easier  after  being 
fulled,  and  make  it  whatever  color  you  will,  it  will  be 
much  more  brilliant  if  dyed  after  being  fulled. 

TO  DYE  BLACK. 

Take  a  pound  of  logwood  to  each  pound  of  goods  to  be 
colored.  Soak  it  twelve  hours  in  rain-water;  then  boil 
an  hour.  Strain  the  water  in  which  it  was  boiled. 

Then  take  an  ounce  of  blue  vitriol  for  each  pound  of 
logwood — dissolve  it  in  sufficient  water  to  wet  the  goods. 
Dip  the  goods  in  it ;  when  wet,  turn  the  whole  into  the 
logwood  dye. 

If  the  goods  are  cotton  they  must  be  boiled  fifteen  min- 
utes— taking  care  to  stir  them  all  the  time.  Silk  and 
woollen  should  not  be  boiled  ;  but  should  be  kept  in  the 
water  at  scalding  heat  for  twenty  minutes. 


168  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

Drain  the  goods,  without  wringing  them,  and  hang  them 
up  in  a  shady  place  to  dry.  When  they  are  dry,  put 
them  into  scalding  (not  boiling)  water  that  has  salt  in  it, 
say  a  handful  to  a  pailful  of  water.  Let  them  stand  in 
this  water  till  it  is  cold.  Then  hang  them  up  wet  to  dry. 

Boiling-hot  suds  sets  the  color  of  black  silk  the  best. 
Sour  milk  will  also  do  it. 

GREEN  DYE. 

Take  half  an  ounce  of  Spanish  float  Indigo,  and  a  pound 
of  oil  of  "vitriol.  Reduce  the  indigo  to  a  powder.  Stir 
these  two  together,  then  put  in  a  small  piece  of  pearlash, 
about  the  size  of  two  barley  corns.  It  will  then  ferment. 
As  soon  as  this  ceases,  bottle  it,  and  you  may  use  it  in 
twenty-four  hours.  This  will  not  answer  for  cotton  goods  ; 
but  will  for  all  kinds  of  woollens. 

When  you  wish  to  use  the  above  dye,  wash  the  articles 
to  be  dyed  till  perfectly  clear  and  free  from  color.  Rinse 
them  till  they  are  entirely  free  from  soap.  If  you  want 
your  goods  of  a  pale  green,  put  to  each  quart  of  warm  rain 
water  that  is  to  be  used,  ten  drops  of  the  above  mixture. 
If  you  wish  a  dark  color,  add  a  few  drops  more,  accord- 
ing to  your  eye.  Put  the  articles  in  the  water  thus  col- 
ored, and  let  them  remain  in  a  warm  place  till  you  see 
they  are  right  as  to  color.  Drain  them  out  in  the  shade, 
and  when  they  are  dry,  wash  them  in  soap  suds. 

BLUE  DYE. 

This  is  made  as  above,  only  using  half  the  above  quan- 
tity of  vitriol. 

SLATE-COLORED  DYE. 
Take  sugar-loaf  paper  with  vinegar  ;  boil  it  in  an  iron 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  169 

•jb 

utensil,  with  a  little  alum  to  set  the  color.  Copperas  and 
tea  grounds  make  a  good  slate-color. 

A  light  slate-color,  very  convenient  for  emigrants  in  the 
country,  is  to  boil  white  maple  bark  in  clear  water,  with 
a  little  alum.  Boil  it  in  a  brass  vessel. 

All  these  dyes  should  be  strained  before  being  used. 
The  goods  then  boiled  in  them,  as  i«  the  case  of  the 
green  dye. 

TO  COLOR  CLOTH  ETC.,  MADDER-RED. 

For  ten  pounds  of  flannel  or  yarn,  take  three-fourths  of 
a  pound  of  cream  of  tartar,  and  three  fourths  of  a  pound  of 
alum  ;  pound  them  fine  and  boil  fifteen  minutes  in  a  little 
rain-water.  Then  add  a  little  cold  water  and  put  in  your 
yarn  or  cloth,  and  boil  it  three  hours,  stirring  it  often. 
Then  take  your  cloth  out  and  air  it  well.  Throw  away 
the  above  water. 

Next  take  a  sufficient  quantity  of  rain-water,  so  as  no* 
to  crowd  your  cloth  ;  put  into  it  three  poun-ds  of  madder, 
and  heat  it  over  a  moderate  fire  as  hot  as  you  can  bear 
your  hand  in  it.  Then  put  in  your  cloth  and  keep  it  stir- 
ring three  hours  at  the  same  heat.  Then  take  out  your 
cloth,  and  add  to  this  water  two  quarts  of  soft  soap,  and 
stir  it  up  well,  put  in  your  cloth  for  twenty  minutes,  and 
then  it  is  ready  for  scouring.  The  cloth  or  yarn  should 
be  well  washed  before  being  put  into  the  first  described 
water,  and  put  into  it  while  wet. 

The  cost  of  this  coloring  will  be  about  six  cents  a  yard 
for  cloth  or  flannel. 

TO  MAKE  WINDSOR  AND  CASTILE  SOAP. 

Take  white  soap  and  slice  it  very  thin.  Melt  it  over 
a  moderate  fire.  When  lukewarm,  add  a  little  oil  of 

8' 

9 


170  ^         THE  FARMER'S  AND 

earraway,  or  other  essential  oil,  to  scent  it.     Turn  it  into 
moulds,  and  let  it  remain  a  week. 

To  make  castile  soap,  boil  common  soap  in  sweet  lamp, 
oil  three  or  four  hours. 


DISEASES 


OF 


CATTLE,  SHEEP,  HORSES,  SWINE, 


ETC.    ETC.   KK. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

THE  diseases  to  which  horned  cattle  are  liable,  are 
few  and  simple,  and  generally  yield  to  judicious  treat- 
ment. 

There  are  three  departments  of  practice  to  which  re- 
sort is  usually  had,  namely  :  Bleeding,  Physicking,  and 
Setoning. 

BLEEDING 

Stands  first ;  and  should  be  used  in  all  cases  of  in- 
flammation. 

The  following  are  the  chief  diseases,  says  Youatt,  in 
which  bleeding  is  required. 

1.  Where  animals  in  a  thriving  state  rub  themselves 
until   the  hair  comes  off,  and   the  spot  is  covered  with  a 
dry  scab  ;   while  at  the  same  time  the  eyes  appear  dull, 
languid,  red,  or  inflamed,  the  breath  hot,  and  the  veins 
puffed  up,  and  considerably  larger  than  usual. 

2.  In  all  kinds  of  inflammatory  diseases,  as  of  the 
brain,  lungs,  kidneys,  bowels,  eyes,  womb,  bladder,  shape, 
and  udder,  or  in  swelling  of  the  joints. 

3.  In  the  disease  called  blain,  and  in  which  bleeding, 
not  only  general  but  local,  and  local  far  more  than  gene- 
ral, has  the  best  possible  effect,  the  tumefaction  usually 
subsiding  almost  immediately,  and  the  beast  speedily  re- 
covering. 

4.  When  the  glands  or  kernels  between  the  jaws,  or 
those  of  the  throat,  are  enlarged,  and  especially  if  they 


174  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

are  only  recently  affected,  immediate  recouse  should  be 
had  to  bleeding,  for  otherwise  the  lungs  will  probably  be- 
come diseased,  and  dangerous  or  consumptive  hoose  will 
speedily  ensue. 

5.  In  bruises,  hurts,  wounds  upon  the  head,  strains 
in  different  parts,  and  all  other  accidents  tfiat  may  occur 
to  the  animal,  and  in  which  there  is  reason  to  apprehend 
considerable  inflammation,  bleeding  will  be  proper. 

6.  In  violent  catarrh  or  cold,  bleeding  is  employed  ; 
but,  in  slight  cases,  a  few  fever  drinks  will  restore  the 
animal. 

7.  The  yellows,  when  attended  with  feverish  symp. 
toms,  or  constipation  of  the  bowels,  requires  bleeding. 

The  manner  of  performing  this  operation  is  too  well- 
known  to  require  any  description. 

The  Fleam  is  an  instrument  in  general  use  for  oxen, 
and  the  jugular  or  neck- vein  is  that  which  is  mostly  open- 
ed. Local  bleeding  is,  however,  in  many  cases  particu- 
larly serviceable.  In  inflammation  of  the  eye,  the  eye- vein 
is  frequently  cut;  in  foot-halt,  Ve  sometimes  bleed  at  the 
toe  ;  and  in  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  or  the  udder,  or 
even  of  the  chest,  blood  is  advantageously  taken  from  the 
milk-vein. 

The  quantity  of  blood  that  it  may  be  proper  to  take  away 
at  one  time  cannot  here  be  determined  ;  but  must  be  re- 
gulated by  the  size,  strength,  and  condition  of  the  animal, 
and  the  disease  under  which  he  labors.  In  many  inflam- 
matory complaints  too  much  can  hardly  be  taken,  provided 
the  bleeding  is  stopped  as  soon  as  the  patient  appears  like- 
ly to  faint  or  to  fall  down.  A  strong  healthy  beast  will 
bear  the  loss  of  five  or  six  quarts  of  blood,  without  the 
least  injury.  Larger  cattle,  that  are  attacked  with  in- 
flammatory complaints,  will  profit  by  the  abstraction  of  a 
greater  quantity  ;  seven  or  eight  quarts  may  be  taken 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND  BOOK.  175 

away  with  decided  advantage  :  but  when  it  is  necessary 
to  repeat  the  bleeding,  the  degree  of  fever  and  the  strength 
of  the  beast  will  regulate  the  quantity.  The  blood  should 
flow  from  a  large  orifice,  for  sudden  depletion  is  far  more 
powerful  in  its  operation  than  when  the  blood  is  suffered 
slowly  to  trickle  down.  The  blood  must  never  be  suffered 
to  fall  upon  the  ground,  but  should  be  received  in  a  measure, 
in  order  that  the  quantity  taken  may  be  known.  No  ab- 
solute quantity  of  blood  should  ever  be  prescribed,  but 
when  extensive  bleeding  is  demanded,  the  stream  should 
flow  until  the  pulse  falters,  or  intermits,  or  the  animal  be- 
gins to  heave  violently,  or  threatens  to  fall,  or  other  cir- 
cumstances show  that  the  system  is  sufficiently  affected. 
The  beast  should  not  be  permitted  to  drink  cold  water 
immediately  after  bleeding,  nor  to  graze  in  the  field  :  the 
former  has  sometimes  induced  troublesome  catarrh,  and 
the  latter  may  cause  the  orifice  to  open  again.  If  this 
operation  is  performed  in  the  summer  season,  it  will  be 
most  prudent  to  fetch  the  cattle  out  of  the,  pasture  toward 
evening,  in  order  that  they  may  be  bled  ;  and  after  that, 
to  let  them  stand  in  the  fold-yard  all  night,  and  drive  them 
back  to  the  field  on  the  following  morning. 

PHYSICKING, 

Is  useful,  1st,  soon  after  a  cow  calves,  to  prevent  the 
milk  fever. 

2nd.  When  cattle  have  eaten  too  greedily  of  clover, 
or  other  rich  food,  they  become  dull  and  lose  their  ap- 
petite. A  slight  purge  will  generally  relieve  them. 

3rd.  When  cattle  become  bound  in  their  body.  Give 
a  purging  drink  immediately,  and  repeat  every  twelve 
hours.  A  clyster  will  be  useful,  if  the  purge  does  not 
answer. 

4th.  It  is  proper  to  purge  in  cases  of  "  red-water." 


176  THE    FARMER'S    AND 

5th.  In  the  "  yellows,"  give  purging  drinks,  and  tonics. 
6th.  Whenever  external  inflammation  is  great,  purging 
medicines  must  always  be  used. 

SETONS, 

Are  useful  in  various  cases,  such  as  black-leg,  hoose, 
joint-evil.  Setons  cause  a  discharge  of  diseased  matter, 
and  thus  relieve  the  system  of  the  cause  of  disease  ;  and 
also  relieve  the  overloaded  vessels  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  seat  of  inflammation. 

MODE  OF  INSERTING  A  SETON. 

A  seton  may  be  made  of  tow  and  horse-hair,  braided 
together.  This  is  the  best  kind  of  seton.  It  will  answer, 
however,  to  use  a  strip  of  leather,  or  a  small  cord.  The 
length  should  be  about  ten  inches.  Before  inserting  it, 
it  should  be  dipped  in  oil  of  turpentine.  With  a  seton 
needle,  run  it  into  the  upper  edge  of  the  dewlap,  and  out 
at  the  lower  edge.  Then  tie  a  large  strong  knot  at  both 
ends  of  the  seton.  In  a  day  or  two  the  matter  will  begin 
to  run.  After  it  begins  to  run,  the  cord  should  be  drawn 
backward  and  forward  every  day,  to  increase  the  dis- 
charge. 

Sometimes  k  is  necessary  to  create  a  discharge  at 
once.  This  can  be  done  by  dipping  the  seton  in  the  fol- 
lowing preparation  : 

Yellow  basilicon,  one  ounce  ;  powdered  cantharides, 
(Spanish  flies)  three  drachms ;  spirit  of  turpentine,  two 
fluid  drachms, 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  notice  a  few  of  the  more  com- 
mon diseases  of  horned  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine  ;  with  fa- 
miliar  instructions  for  their  prevention  and  cure. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  177 

ABORTION,  OR  SLINKING  OF  THE  CALF. 

The  signs  of  ihis  are  as  follows  :  the  cow  is  uneasy, 
and  does  not  eat.  By  feeling  of  the  lower  part  of  her 
horns,  they  will  be  found  to  be  hot.  She  seems  to  have  a 
longing  for  something,  and  to  act  in  a  strange  manner. 
She  should  now  be  bled  and  physicked.  Four  to  six 
quarts  of  blood  should  be  taken  from  her,  and  the  follow- 
ing purge  given  : 

Epsom  salts,  one  pound. 

Powdered  caraway  seeds,  half  an  once. 

Dissolved  in  a  quart  of  warm  gruel. 

If  this  does  not  quiet,  her,  repeat  it  in  three  or  four  days., 
It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  she  should  be  kept  in  a 
pasture  or  stable  by  herself. 

BLACK  FOOT. 

This  is  a  new  disease  in  the  western  country.  The 
distinguished  Governor  Vance,  of  Ohio,  says  no  remedy 
has  yet  been  discovered  for  it.  It  is  very  fatal,  producing 
death  in  a  few  hours.  It  is  usually  perceived  in  the  fore- 
leg or  foot ;  the  animal  becomes  almost  unable  to  move  ; 
the  flesh  of  the  leg  turns  black,  and  mortification  sets  in. 
In  the  neighborhood  of  Plainfield,  Illinois,  one  farmer 
lost  a  fifth  of  his  stock  by  this  disease  during  the  past  year. 
A  correspondent  of  that  excellent  periodical,  "  THE  PRAI- 
RIE FABMER,"  published  at  Chicago,  gives  the  following 
remedy,  which  it  may  be  well  to  try  ;  especially  as  the 
disease  will  generally  prove  fatal,  if  left  to  itself. 

"  Last  May,  (says  the  writer,)  I  had  a  valuable  year- 
ling heifer  attacked  by  the  following  symptoms  :  when 
found  in  the  morning,  she  was  lying  down,  broadside, 
where  she  had  apparently  lain  through  the  night,  or 
longer,  and  was  nearly  helpless.  One  shoulder  was 
considerably  swollen,  as  far  down  as  the  knee-joint. 
8* 


178 

With  the  assistance  of  a  neighbor,  I  raised  her,  and  with 
considerable  urging,  induced  her  to  walk  slowly  a  short 
distance.  She  scarcely  bore  any  weight  on  the  affected 
limb,  and  when  she  moved  it,  it  produced  a  slight  crack- 
ling noise,  similar  to  that  produced  by  wringing  one's 
fingers.  She  refused  food,  but  took  a  little  salt.  There 
were  some  sweat-drops  on  the  end  of  the  nose  or  muz- 
zle. I  am  thus  particular  in  describing  the  symptoms, 
because  I  don't  know  certainly  what  the  disorder  was. 
Several  farmers  saw  her,  and  said  it  was  the  black- 
leg, and  thought  she  would  die.  Others  thought  she 
had  been  bitten  by  a  rattle-snake  ;  and  others  again,  that 
the  swelling  was  caused  by  the  animal  having  been 
hooked  by  another  :  but  no  wound  was  perceptible. 
Well,  we  took  a  sharp  knife,  and  cut  a  gash  through  the 
skin  from  the  knee-joint  upward,  about  six  inches.  Under 
the  skin  there  were  numerous  little  bubbles  of  air.  We 
bathed  the  limb  in  strong  brine,  and  thrust  some  salt  into 
the  wound.  Sometimes  we  bathed  it  with  hot  soap  and 
water.  The  cut  discharged  continually  a  thin  yellowish 
substance.  She  ate  nothing  for  several  days,  except  a 
little  salt,  and  appeared  very  dull.  After  a  week  or  so, 
however,  she  began  to  recover  her  appetite,  eating  a  little 
grass,  and  considerable  dry  earth,  from  a  small  patch 
near  by  which  had  been  lately  ploughed.  She  continued 
to  improve  slowly,  and  when  nearly  well,  the  leg  began 
to  swell  below  the  knee  ;  but  this  was  slight  in  comparison 
to  the  first  attack,  and  finally  disappeared  of  itself.  The 
animal  soon  improved  in  flesh,  and  grew  finely  through 
the  remainder  of  the  summer. 

"  Whether  the  treatment  above  described  was  of  any 
service  is  more  than  I  know.  But  in  the  absence  of  better 
information,  I  shall  certainly  pursue  a  like  course  under 
similar  circumstances." 


17!) 

There  is  a  disease,  called  by  some  the  Blood ;  the 
Blood- Striking;  the  Quarter  Evil,  etc.,  which  is  most 
terrible  in  its  effects  on  horned  cattle — like  that  of  vio- 
lent poisoning,  ft  is  almost  impossible  to  cure  it ;  and 
we  hardly  think  it  worth  while  to  state  its  symptoms  and 
the  means  used  to  try  to  cure  it. 

THE  BLAIN. 

This  is  a  frequent  disease.  The  animal  appears  dull 
and  low  spirited.  Its  eyes  red,  with  tears  in  them.  The 
eyes  swell  a  little.  The  principal  symptom,  however,  is, 
blisters  under  the  tongue,  or  at  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  ; 
the  pulse  is  quicker  than  usual,*  and  the  bowels  are  con- 
fined. The  flanks  heave  a  little,  usually.  If  the  beast 
has  had  the  disease  some  time,  the  saliva  flows  freely, 
often  mixed  with  bloody,  offensive  matter.  The  animal 
becomes  much  reduced  in  flesh  and  strength  ;  and  is  in 
danger  of  dying  from  the  enlargement  of  the  tongue. 

CURE. — The  first  thing  to  be  done,  is  to  cut  the  bladders 
under  and  along  the  side  of  the  tongue.  This  will  relieve 
the  beast  materially. 

If  there  be  much  fever,  take  four  or  five  quarts  of 
blood,  and  give  the  following  purge : 

Epsom  salts,  one  pound. 

Powdered  caraway  seeds,  half  an  ounce. 

Dissolved  in  a  quart  of  warm  gruel. 

If  the  fever  continues  pretty  severe,  the  above  medicine 
may  be  given  once  or  twice  in  twenty-four  hours,  till  it 
subsides. 

The  mouth  should  be  washed  with  equal  parts  of  myrrh 
and  water;  or  a  decoction  of  green  tea,  so  as  to  heal  the 

*  The  pulse  of  cattle  may  be  the  most  readily  felt  at  the  bnck  part  of  the  lower 
jaw,  where  the  artery  comes  down  the  channel  between  the  jaws,  and  passes  over 
the  edge  of  the  jaw  bone.  The  natural  pulse  of  a  full  grown  ox  is  about  fifty,  to 
fifty-five  beats  in  a  minute  ;  but  is  quicker  in  milch  cows. 


180  THE 

ulcers.  Thin  gruel  should  be  placed  near  to  the  animal, 
if  the  mouth  is  so  sore  that  it  cannot  eat  hay,  and  plenty 
of  gruel  administered  by  force. 

Sometimes  the  animal  will  become  very  weak,  and 
lose  its  appetite.  If  this  be  the  case,  when  the  fever  is  gone, 
give  it  the  following  : 

Gentian  root,  two  drachms. 

Tartrate  of  iron,  one  drachm. 

Powdered  ginger,  one  drachm. 

In  a  pint  of  gruel. 

This  should  be  given  twice  a  day,  until  the  appetite 
returns  and  the  beast  improves. 

0^7"  Be  careful  that  none  of  the  matter  discharged  from 
the  mouth  comes  in  contact  with  any  sove  place,  as  it 
may  cause  ulcers.  If  ulcers  do  appear,  they  may  be 
cured  by  the  application  of  lunar  caustic. 

CALVING. 

Cows  which  are  shortly  expected  to  calve,  ought  to  be 
lodged  at  night  in  some  convenient  place  undercover,  for 
a  week  or  two  before  calving,  as  it  might  be  the  means  of 
saving  the  life  of  the  calf,  and  perhaps  of  the  dam  like- 
wise. The  day  and  night  after  a  cow  has  calved,  she 
should  be  kept  warm.  Let  her  not  be  exposed  for  some 
time  to  the  dampness  of  the  night. 

Cows  which  are  near  calving  ought  to  be  fed  with  better 
and  more  substantial  food  than  usual.  Grain  of  any  kind 
is  now  useful,  but  it  should  be  crushed,  bruised,  or  coarse- 
ly ground.  If  the  cleaning  of  a  cow  aft?r  calving  be  de- 
layed, it  may  be  promoted,  according  to  Dean's  "  New 
England  Farmer,"  by  giving  her  a  pail  of  warm  water 
with  some  ashes  in  it ;  or,  according  to  "  The  Grazier's 
Guide,"  the  only  thing  to  be  given  is  toast  and  weak  wine, 
or  good  cider  or  perry.  If  wine  be  preferred,  mix  it  with 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  181 

an  equal  quantity  of  water.  This  toast  should  consist  of 
four  pints  of  wine  and  water,  and  about  a  pound  and  a 
half  of  bread  toasted. 

Inflamed  teats  should  be  washed  with  two  drachms  of 
sugar  of  lead  in  a  quart  of  water.  Should  tumors  appear, 
apply  a  common  warm  mash  of  bran,  with  a  little  lard. 

To  prevent  cows  from  sucking  their  own  milk,  it  is 
said  that  rubbing  the  teats  frequently  with  the  most  fetid 
cheese  that  can  be  procured,  is  an  effectual  remedy 

In  order  that  it  may  be  ascertained  what  is  the  proper 
time  for  cows  to  go  dry  previous  to  their  calving,  an  ac- 
count should  be  kept  of  the  time  when  each  cow  is  put  to 
bull,  so  that  the  cow  may  be  dried  off  in  due  season.  The 
following  prescription  for  drying  off  cows  is  given  in  Monk's 
"  Agricultural  Dictionary." 

Take  an  ounce  of  powdered  alum  ;  boil  it  in  two 
quarts  of  milk  till  it  turns  to  whey  :  then  take  a  large 
handful  of  sage,  and  boil  it  in  the  whey  till  you  reduce  it 
to  one  quart ;  rub  her  udder  with  a  little  of  it,  and  give 
her  the  rest  by  way  of  drink  ;  milk  her  clean  before  you 
give  it  lo  her,  and  as  you  see  need,  repeat  it.  Draw  a 
little  milk  from  her  every  second  or  third  day,  lest  her  ud- 
der be  overcharged. 

WEANING  AND  REARING  CALVES. 

Mowbray  saj^s,  "  The  calf  may  be  sold  (or  taken 
from  the  cow)  as  soon  as  it  has  drawn  the  biestings  or 
first  milk,  unless  some  defect  in  the  cow's  udder  or  teats 
may  render  it  desirable  for  the  calf  to  suck  a  few 
days,  in  order  that  the  action  may  clear  off  any  obstruc- 
tions, for  which  the  butting  of  the  calPs  head  is  generally 
the  best  remedy.  If  intended  to  be  fattened  for  the  butcher, 
it  must  bo  k'-'pt.  jn  a  pen  particularly  dry  and  clean  ; 
suckled  twice  a  'lav  at  regular  hours;  always  have  the 


182 

first,  which  is  the  thinnest  of  the  milk,  and  not  be  permit- 
ted  to  overcharge  its  stomach.  Lumps  of  soft  chalk  are 
usually  placed  for  the  calf  to  lick,  as  an  absorbant  to  neu- 
tralize the  acidities  engendered  in  the  stomach  from  feed- 
ing on  milk.  It  seldom  pays  to  fatten  a  calf  beyond  ten 
or  twelve  weeks. 

"  A  calf  may  be  weaned  by  being  gradually  accustom- 
ed to  suck  milk  in  a  pail  through  the  fingers.  Many  are 
reared  on  very  little  milk  mixed  with  hay  lea,  linseed,  or 
other  slops ;  fed  on  straw  in  the  winter,  and  in  summer 
on  the  common  :  such  cannot  be  expected  to  turn  to  much 
account.  The  best  cattle  are  reared  from  the  teats,  well 
wintered  in  good  shelter,  and  full  fed  until  they  attain  their 
growth.  Warmth  and  dry  lodging,  are  of  the  utmost 
consequence  to  the  improvement^  all  young  animals. 
Calves  may,  however,  be  reared  to  good  profit,  by  being 
suffered  to  suck  a  very  moderate  quantity  daily,  the  bulk 
of  their  food  consisting  of  skim-milk,  thickened  with  oat 
or  wheat  meal  ;  their  winter  food  being  carrots  or  Swe- 
dish turnips -sliced,  and  cut  straw,  with  a  small  quantity 
of  hay,  daily." 

"  The  Grazier's  Guide,"  observes,  "  If  the  calf  be  in- 
tended for  the  butcher,  it  may  be  taken  from  the  cow  in 
about  a  week  or  ten  days,  and  fed  the  remainder  of  the 
time  by  hand  ;  but  the  time  of  taking  the  calf  away  must 
be  determined  by  the  state  of  the  cow's  udder  ;  for  unless 
that  be  free  from  kernels  and  indurations,  the  calf  must 
be  allowed  to  suck,  as  the  jolting  of  its  head  is  the  means 
of  healing  or  restoring  the  udder,  and  preventing  the  down- 
fall or  inflammation  in  this  part,  which  might  cause  much 
trouble,  and  even  endanger  the  life  of  the  cow. 

"  But  if  the  calf  is  intended  to  be  reared,  it  should  not 
be  weaned  until  at  least  six  weeks,  or  even  two  months 
old,  whether  male  or  female.  For  such,  there  is  no  food 


183 

like  the  cow's  milk ;  and  if  she  does  not  yield  a  sufficient 
quantity,  that  of  another  ought  to  be  had  recourse  to.  It 
is  an  incontrovertible  fact,  that  the  longer  a  calf  sucks, 
not  only  the  larger  and  stronger  will  it  become,  but  it  will 
also  acquire  a  much  better  form  and  more  robust  health." 

Calves  which  come  early,  should  be  preferred  for  the 
rearing.  Those  which  come  late,  do  not  acquire  sufficient 
strength  to  bear  the  cold  of  winter ;  they  languish,  and 
are  reared  with  difficulty.  Calves  should  not  be  weaned 
too  suddenly,  but  by  little  and  little.  The  less  they  are 
able  to  eat,  the  more  they  should  be  allowed  to  suck  ; 
after  a  while  they  may  be  brought  to  take  it  from  the 
pail.  This  is  done  by  placing  the  hand  in  the  milk,  with 
the  palm  upward,  and  under  the  milk,  while  the  fingers 
are  raised  above  the  surface  of  the  milk  for  the  calf  to  lay 
hold  of  with  its  mouth,  which  it  does  very  readily,  and 
sucks  up  the  milk  with  great  ease. 

When  they  are  completely  taken  away,  they  should  be 
fed  with  a  little  bran,  and  some  of  the  most  soft  and  fra- 
grant hay  of  the  second  crop  ;  they  should  be  allowed 
plenty  of  the  skim-milk,  and  now  and  then  a  little 
water  in  which  barley  has  been  boiled  and  broken  up,  or 
a  little  buttermilk  occasionally.  There  is  at  first  some 
difficulty  in  bringing  them  to  drink,  but  a  little  perseve- 
rance will  accustom  them  to  it. 

Moderate  warmth  and  dry  lodgings  are  of  the  utmost 
consequence  to  young  calves  ;  and  if  we  would  turn  them 
to  any  good  account,  they  must  not  be  stinted  either  in 
these  or  in  their  food.  Calves  which  have  recently  been 
weaned  and  arc  not  at  pasture,  should  be  fed  often,  at  least 
three  times,  and  it  is  better  five  times  a  day.  As  soon  as 
they  are  fit  to  follow  the  mother  they  should  be  let  out,  as 
they  are  greatly  benefited  by  air  and  exercise.  Calves 
sometimes  require  a  habit  of  sucking  one  another,  of  which 
trick  they  may  be  broken  by  separating  them. 


184  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

Calves  cannot  be  kept  too  clean,  nor  have  fresh  litter 
too  often.  If  they  are  suffered  to  lie  on  their  own  dung 
and  urine,  they  will  become  mangy,  and  scarcely  ever 
thrive.  They  are  subject  to  several  disorders,  such  as 
diarrhea,  dysentery,  costiveness,  etc.  As  a  means  of 
preventing  the  greater  number  of  the  diseases  to  which 
they  are  liable,  the  following  rules  are  prescribed  in 
"  The  Farmer's  and  Grazier's  Guide." 

1st.  Let  the  young  calf  suck  the  first  milk.  This 
will  cleanse  the  bowels,  and  prevent  costiveness. 

2nd.  Let  it  suck  from  its  mother  at  least  two  months, 
and  then  wean  it  gradually. 

3rd.  Let  its  first  food  be  such  as  is  easy  of  diges- 
tion, and  let  it  have  plenty  of  sweet  skim-milk,  and  good 
hay. 

4th.  Keep  it  very  clean,  rubbing  it  well,  occasionally, 
with  a  wisp  of  hay  or  straw 

5th.  Keep  its  stable  clean,  and  perfectly  free  from 
all  impurities. 

6th.  Let  it  have  gentle  exercise ;  the  best  will  be, 
following  the  mother  in  the  meadow  or  pasture. 

7th.  Do  not  stint  it  either  in  good  food  or  good  drink, 
and  change  its  litter  often  enough  to  keep  it  clean,  sweet, 
and  dry." 

CALVES  ;  THEIR  DISEASES. 

DIARRHEA. — This  disease  is  common  with  young 
calves ;  at  the  time  of  weaning,  especially.  Weaning 
and  change  of  food  should  not  be  too  sudden. 

New  milk  should  be  used  with  skirn-milk  or  gruel, 
whichever  is  to  be  substituted  for  the  mother's  milk  ;  and 
this  done  gradually,  making  the  new  food  come  naturally 
to  the  calf.  If  the  calf  have  a  bad  looseness  of  the  bow- 
els,  il  should  be  attended  to  at  once.  Give  two  ounces  of 
castor  oil  ;  or  four  of  epsom  salts.  Then  give — 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  J85 

Prepared  chalk,  two  drachms. 

Powdered  opium,  ten  grains. 

Do.  ginger,  half  a  drachm. 

Essence  of  peppermint,  five  drops. 

In  half  a  pint  of  gruel,  twice  a  day.     The  above  is  a 
dose  for  a  calf  under  two  months  old. 

An  old  New-England  farmer  gives  the  following  re- 
cipe : 

"  Put  into  a  suitable  bottle  about  half  a  pint  of  good 
cider.  Then  open  a  vein  in  the  neck  of  the  calf,  and  let 
into  the  bottle  about  the  same  quantity  of  blood.  Shake 
it  well  together,  and  before  it  has  time  to  thicken,  put  it 
down  the  calf's  throat,  which  is  easily  done  with  the  bot- 
tle. In  thirty  years  use  of  it,  I  have  never  known  it  to 
fail  in  effecting  a  cure,  by  once  giving  it,  except  in  one 
instance,  and  then  a  second  dose  proved  effectual." 

COSTIVENESS. — When  it  occurs  in  calves  but  a  few 
days  old,  the  cure  will  be  almost  impossible.  Epsom 
salts,  dissolved  in  warm  water,  are  recommended.  The 
first  dose  may  consist  of  two  ounces  of  salts,  in  two  or 
three  quarts  of  water ;  to  be  continued  in  ounce  doses 
every  six  hours,  in  same  quantity  of  water.  If  the  calf 
is  two  or  three  months  old,  the  first  dose  should  be  a  quar- 
ter of  a  pound  of  salts  in  a  gallon  of  warm  water.  Cos- 
tiveness  i.i  exceedingly  difficult  of  cure  ;  and  the  farmer 
should  be  very  careful  to  prevent  it.  Whenever  the  dung 
is  perceived  to  be  a  little  too  hard,  a  mild  purge  should  be 
given. 

THE  HOOSE. — This  is  a  bad  disease  in  calves,  speedily 
resulting  in  death.  As  soon  as  the  calf  is  observed  to 
cough  considerably,  he  should  be  put  into  a  dry,  warm 
stable.  A  light  bleeding,  and  a  small  dose  of  physic 
will  now  be  good,  and  probably  cure  the  patient.  Some- 
times this  disease  is  prevalent  in  certain  neighborhoods, 
and  carries  off  many  calves. 


186 

Should  the  animal  get  rapidly  worse,  and  his  cough  be 
very  distressing,  the  following  will  be  a  good  medicine, 
if  the  calf  be  six  or  eight  months  old  : 

Oil  of  turpentine,  one  ounce. 

Linseed  oil,  three  ounces. 

Powdered  ginger,  one  drachm. 

To  be  taken  once  a  week. 

Some  people  use  half  a  pint  of  lime-water  every  morn- 
ing, followed  by  a  table-spoonful  of  salt,  the  same  after- 
noon. This  is  considered  a  good  remedy,  and  is  easily 
procured. 

CANKER. — This  is  known  by  soreness  of  the  mouth, 
which  prevents  the  animal  from  eating  as  much  as  usual. 
Little  pimples  are  seen  about  the  gums,  and  the  animal 
grows  poor.  Sometimes  the  tongue  and  gums  are  swol- 
len, and  the  calf  is  feverish. 

Give  at  once  one  or  two  ounces  of  epsom  salts,  daily, 
until  it  is  better ;  washing  the  mouth  in  a  solution  of 
common  alum,  say  half  an  ounce  of  alum  to  a  pint  of 
water. 

To  PREVENT  CALVES  FROM  SUCKING. — Most  persons 
are  aware  that  some  calves,  when  they  wish  to  have  them 
weaned,  are  disposed  to  continue  the  habit  of  sucking,  and 
in  this  way  give  much  trouble.  To  prevent  this,  take 
strong  old  cheese,  of  which  make  a  paste,  and  apply 
the  same  to  the  cow's  teats. 

SCOURS  IN  CALVES. — When  the  calf  is  attacked,  it 
should  be  put  in  a  warm,  dry  stable,  and  not  be  permit- 
ted to  suck  more  than  half  the  quantity  of  milk  it  is  wont 
to  do  ;  but  should  be  put  to  the  cow  regularly  three  times 
a  day.  Make  a  tea  of  equal  portions  of  white-oak,  beech, 
dogwood,  and  slippery-elrn  bark ;  and  give  small  doses 
twice  a  day,  and  the  calf  will  soon  recover. 


187 
COLD,  COUGH  AND  CATARRH. 

SYMPTOMS. — The  animal  is  dull  and  stupid.  Eyes 
weep ;  muzzle  dry ;  hair  sticks  up ;  appetite  bad  ; 
milk  fails.  Pulse  sixty  to  ninety.  Bowels  costive. 

TREATMENT. — Take  from  it  six  quarts  of  blood.  Then 
a  purgative  as  follows : 

Epsom  salts,  one  pound. 

Powdered  caraway  seed,  half  an  ounce  ;  dissolved  in  a 
quart  of  warm  gruel. 

Afterward  give  the  following,  night  and  morning- 

Tartar  emetic,  one  drachm. 

Powdered  digitalis,  half  a  drachm. 

Nitre,  three  drachms. 

Mix  in  a  quart  of  warm  gruel.  If  the  bowels  get  cos- 
tive, repeat  the  first  dose. 

House  the  animal,  and  give  it  a  mash  of  bran,  if  there 
be  little  or  no  fever.  Continue  the  above  treatment,  till 
the  muzzle  becomes  cool  and  moist,  and  the  pulse  down 
to  fifty  or  fifty- five. 

CHOKING. 

If  the  object  which  causes  choking  be  so  far  down  that 
it  cannot  be  reached  by  the  hand,  it  must  be  forced  down 
the  throat.  To  do  this,  give  the  beast  half  a  pint  of  oil  ; 
then  put  a  gag  in  its  mouth  ;  then  take  a  flexible  rod  of 
some  kind,  (a  whip-handle  will  answer,)  pass  it  gently 
down  the  throat  till  it  touches  the  object.  Now  press 
firmly  and  steadily  upon  it,  until  it  is  removed. 

In  Spain,  it  is  a  common  -practice,  when  a  beast  is 
choked  with  apples,  potatoes,  and  the  like,  for  two  or  three 
men  to  sieze  the  beast,  and  lay  its  neck  over  a  log  of 
wood,  and  then  strike  the  apple  a  smart  blow  with  a  bil- 
let of  wood,  so  as  to  crush  it.  This  must  be  done  cau- 
tiously, however. 


188  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

COW-POX. 

SYMPTOMS. — Small  sores  on  the  teats,  which,  when 
broken,  discharge  a  thin  matter.  These  are  surrounded 
with  inflammation.  The  sores  become  ulcerated,  if  ne- 
glected. The  animal  shows  signs  of  fever ;  eyes  heavy  ; 
milk  lessens. 

TREATMENT. — Open  the  bowels  with  one  of  the  epsom 
salt  purges  before  named.  Then  give  : 

Tartar  emetic,  one  drachm. 

Powdered  digitalis,  half  a  drachm. 

Nitre,  three  drachms,  in  a  quart  of  warm  gruel. 

Wash  the  teats  in  warm  water,  and  apply,  night  and 
morning,  the  following  wash  : 

Sal  ammoniac,  quarter  of  an  ounce. 

Vinegar,  half  a  pint. 

Camphor  spirits,  two  ounces. 

Goulard's  Extract,  an  ounce.*  Mixed  and  kept  in  a 
bottle  for  use. 

GARGET,  OR  DOWNFALL  IN  THE  UDDER. 

SYMPTOMS. — The  udder  becomes  swollen,  hard,  and 
hot,  and  sore  to  the  press.  The  milk  is  less  in  quantity, 
and  sometimes  mixed  with  blood  and  matter.  Sometimes 
the  hind  legs  are  swollen  and  inflamed,  especially  the  hip 
joint,  hock,  and  fetlock. 

TREATMENT. — Take  the  animal  out  of  pasture.  Bleed 
three  to  five  quarts.  The  next  morning  give  the  epsom 
salt  purge.  Feed  light  for  a  couple  of  days  on  mashes 
and  a  little  hay ;  and  when  sent  back  to  pasture,  send  to 

*  GOULARD'S  EXTRACT  is  thus  made:  sugar  of  lead — one  ounce;  alcohol — 
one  ounce;  water — one  quart,  mixed  together.. 

A  TOLERABLE    SUBSTITUTE    FOR    THK    ABOVE,    is  ttS  follows  I 

Bruised  ouk  bark — six  ounces1,  boiled  in  two  quarts  of  water  till  it.  is  reduced  to 
three  pint-.  Or:  alum — quarter  of  an  ounce;  water — one  quart. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  199 

a  light  one.  The  diseased  parts  of  the  udder  should  be 
rubbed  with  the  following  ointment : 

Soft  soap,  one  pound. 

Mercurial  ointment,  one  ounce. 

Camphor,  melted  with  alcohol,  one  ounce ;  rubbed  well 
together. 

During  the  whole  progress  of  the  disease,  the  bowels 
should  be  kept  loose  with  the  epsom  salt  purge. 

THE  HOOVE,  HOVEN,  OR  BLOWN. 

CAUSES. — Sudden  change  of  pasture,  from  a  poor  to  a 
rich  one.  Too  many  turnips,  too  much  clover,  etc.,  etc., 
etc. 

SYMPTOMS. — The  beast  swells ;  breathing  hard  ;  much 
pain.  Difficulty  of  breathing,  and  swelling  increase. 

TREATMENT. — Medicine  is  of  but  little  use.  Dcftiot 
drive  the  animal  about ;  be  very  particular  on  this  point. 
Some  people  plunge  a  lancet,  or  a  small  pocket-knife  into 
the  animal,  midway  between  the  haunch  bone  and  the 
last  rib.  This  is  called  a  good  remedy.  The  wound  is 
left  open  a  day  or  two  to  suffer  the  gas  to  escape. 

To  PREVENT  HOVEN. — At  times  when  cattle  are  par- 
ticularly liable  to  hoven,  on  a  change  of  pasture  or  food  ; 
and  early  in  the  spring,  and  about  the  time  of  early  frost 
in  the  autumn,  take  a  bushel  of  fine  wood  ashes  and  a 
bushel  of  common  salt ;  mix  and  use  in  the  usual  man- 
ner of  salting  cattle.  Use  this  mixture  for  a  few  days. 
This  is  a  capital  preventive. 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  BOWELS. 

SYMPTOMS. — The  animal  is  uneasy,  getting  up  and 
lying  down  often ;  strikes  his  belly  with  his  hind  feet ; 
bowels  costive ;  the  dung,  if  any  is  voided,  is  hard  and 


190 

covered  with  mucus.  The  urine  voided  with  pain,  pulse 
quick,  and  flanks  heave.  It  is  distinguished  from  colic 
by  the  fever,  dry  muzzle,  and  hot  mouth.  The  attack  is 
sudden ;  attended  sometimes  by  trembling,  deafness,  and 
insensibility  to  the  voice  or  the  whip. 

TREATMENT. — Bleed  six  or  eight  quarts ;  then  give  the 
strongest  purges.  If  the  croton  nut  can  be  had,  make  the 
following  physic : 

Epsom  salts,  half  a  pound. 

Croton  nut,  ten  grains.* 

Rub  the  nut  down  to  a  fine  powder,  and  give  it  in  a 
half  a  pint  of  warm  gruel,  and  immediately  afterward  the 
salts  in  gruel. 

.  It  may  be  necessary  to  repeat  the  bleeding  and  purging. 
Castor  oil  may  be  given  in  large  quantities  for  a  purge. 

•  . 

LICE  ON  CATTLE. 

Some  prefer  an  ointment,  others  a  wash  :  we  give  both 
to  the  reader. 

OINTMENT     FOR    LICE. 

Lard,  seven  ounces. 

Mercurial  ointment,  one  ounce. 

Mix  together,  and  rub  wherever  the  lice  are. 

WASH    FOR    LICE. 

Corrosive  sublimate,  two  drachms. 

Rub  it  down  in  alcohol,  two  ounces. 

Water,  one  pint. 

Feed  the  beast  well. 

It  is  said,  on  good  authority,  that  dirt  or  fine  sand  sifted 
into  the  hair,  will  entirely  destroy  vermin  on  cattle.  It 
may  be  well  to  try  it. 

*  If  the  Croton  nut  cannot  be  had,  use  large  quantities  of  Castor  oil. 


191 

MAD  ITCH. 

The  effect  upon  cattle  following  hogs-  that  are  fed 
on  green  corn,  cut  up  and  thrown  to  them  when  in  the 
roasting-ear  state,  is  very  fatal.  The  hogs  will  chew 
the  corn-stalk,  and  extract  all  the  sap,  and  then  throw  it 
out.  These  fibres  thus  thrown  out,  with  all  the  sap  ex- 
tracted, will  be  eaten  voraciously  by  the  cattle.  It  con- 
tains no  nutriment,  to  give  fermentation  to  enable*  the 
animal  to  ruminate  ;  and  it  thus  lays  dormant  and  inac- 
tive in  the  many  folds,  or  stomach ;  becomes  perfectly 
compact  and  indigestible ;  creates  fever,  and  in  the  end 
destroys  the  animal. 

Cattle  destroyed  by  eating  these  fibres  of  the  corn-stalk, 
will  first  show  the  symptom  by  a  wild  stare  of  the  eye  ; 
and  in  its  first  stages  will  frequently  become  cross,  and 
even  attack  their  keepers.  They  will  then  begin  to  rub 
the  nose  and  head  against  the  fence,  until  the  skin  and 
flesh  are  torn  and  lacerated  in  a  most  frightful  manner, 
and  in  the  end  die  in  great  misery.  I  have  lost  many 
fine  cattle  in  this  way,  and  have  never  been  able  to  save 
one  thus  afflicted.  The  entire  symptoms  are  similar  to 
what  is  called  the  mad  itch,  which  I  have  no  doubt  is 
created  by  the  same  cause,  taking  into  the  many  folds 
indigestible  matter,  incapable  of  fermentation  and  rumi- 
nation. 

THE  MANGE. 

Cattle  that  are  kept  well,  and  properly  taken  care  of, 
will  not  have  this  disease,  unless  they  take  it  by  con- 
tagion. 

SYMPTOMS. — Sometimes  there  is  an  eruption  on  the 
skin  ;  the  animal  appears  hide-bound  ;  the  hair  is  dry  and 
wiry  ;  the  hair  comes  off  easily  ;  the  animal  is  constantly 
rubbing  itself;  a  white  scurf  appears  on  the  skin. 


192  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

TREATMENT. — Make  an  ointment  as  follows  : 

Flour  of  sulphur,  one  pound. 

Mercurial  ointment,  two  ounces. 

Common  turpentine,  one  pound  and  a  half. 

Lard,  one  pound  and  a  half. 

Melt  the  turpentine  and  the  lard  together,  and  stir  in  the 
sulphur  when  these  begin  to  cool ;  afterward,  rub  in  the 
mercurial  ointment,  by  placing  the  whole  mass  on  a  flat 
stone.  This  precaution  is  necessary  to  prevent  the  hand 
coming  in  contact  with  the  mercurial  ointment. 

This  ointment  should  be  rubbed  in  whenever  there  is 
mange.  No  danger  will  happen  if  the  beast  do  not  take 
cold. 

Some  medicine  should  also  be  given.  The  following 
will  be  good : 

Flour  of  sulphur,  two  ounces. 

Black  sulphuret  of  antimony,  one  ounce. 

Nitre,  two  ounces. 

Powdered  ginger,  one  ounce. 

Divide  these  into  four  powders  ;  give  one  every  other 
morning,  in  gruel. 

RED  WATER. 

SYMPTOMS. — Purging,  followed  by  costiveness  ;  appetite 
poor  ;  pulse  and  breathing  quick  ;  pulse  often  weak  ;  the 
insides  of  the  nostrils  and  eyelids  pale  ;  legs  cold  ;  milk 
small  in  quantity  ;  the  urine  becomes  brown,  and  some- 
times black. 

TREATMENT. — Change  pasture  :  if  the  beast  be  quite  ill, 
house  it,  and  feed  on  light  mashes  and  a  little  hay.  Give 
the  following : 

Epsom  salts,  one  pound. 

Powdered  ginger,  half  an  ounce. 

Carbonate  of  ammonia,  half  an  ounce. 


193 

Mix  in  one  quart  of  boiling  water. 

Divide  the  above  into  four  parts,  and  give  it  once  in  six 
hours. 

As  soon  as  the  bowels  are  well  open,  give  the  follow- 
ing, every  day : 

Powdered  ginger,  one  drachm. 

Powdered  gentian  root,  one  drachm. 

Spirits  of  nitre,  one  drachm. 

Mix  in  a  pint  of  gruel. 

Sometimes  it  will  be  necessary  to  take  away  a  little 
blood,  before  giving  any  medicine.  If  the  urine  should 
continue  to  be  black,  an  ounce  of  nitre  may  be  given  with 
the  above  drink. 

The  following,  taken  from  the  London  Farmer's  Jour- 
nal,  is  highly  recommended  ;  it  may  be  well  to  try  it. 

"  For  a  full  grown  cow  dissolve  two  pounds  epsom  salts 
in  two  or  three  pints  of  boiling  water,  and  give  it  when 
new-milk  warm  ;  then  keep  her  six  or  eight  hours  without 
food.  If  then  the  salts  should  have  not  operated,  give 
four  or  five  quarts  of  warm  water,  and  drive  her  about 
gently  ;  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour  it  will  operate  ;  then  give 
her  as  much  warm  water  as  she  will  drink,  and  turn  her 
out  to  graze,  if  the  weather  be  dry.  My  brother,  J. 
Waistell,  of  West  Park,  has  used  the  above  remedy  for 
upward  of  thirty  years,  and  has  not  in  all  that  time  lost 
one  beast  by  the  red-water.  Before  he  commenced  using 
it,  he  almost  in  variably  lost  cattle  annually  by  that  disease. 
His  cattle  were  less  frequently  afflicted  than  formerly, 
which  he  attributes  to  his  having  underdrained  a  great 
part  of  his  farm,  which  was  wet  and  boggy.  The  reme- 
dy was  communicated  tc  him  by  a  relation,  Mr.  Kendall, 
a  cow-keeper,  who  for  many  years  kept  many  cows,  and 
occupied  part  of  Mary-le-bone  Park,  at  London." 
9 


194  *          THE  FARMER'S  AND 

SCOORING  ROT ;  OR  ROT. 

This  is  a  very  prevalent  disease  in  cold  wet  lands.  It 
is  an  inflammation  of  the  large  inestines. 

SYMPTOMS. — Painful  attempts  to  void  dung  ;  which  is 
thin,  offensive  and  slimy.  The  beast  is  in  pain,  and  rest- 
less ;  a  rumbling  noise  is  heard  inside  ;  the  animal  gets 
thin.  By  and  by  the  dewlap  hangs  down  flabbily  ;  the 
dung  is  very  liquid  and  offensive,  and  appears  full  of 
bubbles  ;  the  hair  is  wiry  and  sticks  up ;  much  fever  ; 
pulse  quick,  eyes  inflamed  and  dull. 

TREATMENT. — House  the  beast  at  once.  Keep  on  dry 
food.  If  poor  and  weak,  a  thick  gruel  should  be  given 
three  times  a  day  made  of  oats,  barley  and  beans,  ground, 
with  a  little  linseed  cake  added.  Bleeding  must  be  re- 
sorted to,  proportioned  to  the  feverish  symptoms.  Now 
give: 

Epsom  salts,  one  pound. 

Powdered  caraway  seeds,  half  an  ounce  :  in  a  quart  of 
warm  gruel. 

In  a  few  hours  give  the  following: 

Prepared  chalk,  two  ounces. 

Powdered  oak  bark,  one  ounce. 

Opium,  two  scruples. 

Powdered  ginger,  two  drachms  ;  in  a  quart  of  warm 
gruel. 

If  the  disease  does  not  seem  better,  the  above  may  be 
used  once  or  twice  a  day  for  three  days  ;  if  it  then  con- 
tinues  bad,  give  the  following  drink  twice  in  twenty-four 
hours,  for  a  week : 

Mutton  suet,  one  pound. 

New  milk,  two  quarts. 

Boil  them  together  till   the  suet  is  dissolved,  then  add 

Powdered  opium,  half  a  drachm 

Powdered  ginger,  one  drachm. 


HAND-BOOK.  19t 

This  is  an  obstinate  disease,  and  may  prove  fatal,  nc 
matter  what  you  do.  The  greatest  care  must  be  taken  unti 
the  least  is  recovering,  both  in  the  food  and  drink  of  the 
animal. 

STAGGERS. 

SYMPTOMS. — Dullness  ;  a  desire  to  sleep  ;  reeling  anc 
staggering. 

TREATMENT. — Bleed  ;  give  the  epsom  salt  purge,  (page 
187)  and  continue  till  the  bowels  are  opened  thoroughly, 
This  will  usually  give  relief. 

TREMBLES. 

This  extraordinary  disease  prevails  in  some  regions  ol 
the  West.  It  is  a  most  alarming  one. 

SYMPTOMS. — In  the  earliest  stages  of  this  malady,  IE 
the  cow,  it  may  not  display  its  existence,  if  the  attack  be 
not  violent  and  the  animal  left  to  itself;  for  in  the  begin- 
ning,  as  in  all  stages  of  the  disorder,  the  appetite  seems 
to  be  unimpaired,  and  the  thirst  not  increased.  Even 
this  early  stage,  not  less  than  the  more  advanced,  appears, 
however,  to  be  attended  with  constipation  of  the  bowels. 
The  animal  at  length  begins  to  mope  and  droop,  to  walk 
slower  than  its  fellows,  and  to  falter  in  its  gait.  If,  undei 
these  circumstances,  it  should  be  driven,  and  attempt  to 
run,  the  debility  and  stiffness  of  its  muscles  are  immedi- 
ately apparent.  It  fails  rapidly,  trembles,  pants,  and 
sometimes  seems  blind,  as  it  runs  against  obstacles,  but 
this  may  arise  from  vertigo ;  at  length  it  falls  down,  lies 
on  its  side  quivering,  and  is  not,  perhaps,  able  to  rise  for 
several  hours,  sometime*  never.  Now  and  then,  the 
quivering  amounts  to  a  slight  convulsion.  When  the 
disease  is  not  violent,  the  animal,  after  a  longer  or  shorter 
period,  is  again  on  its  feet ;  but  its  capacity  for  muscular 


196 

effort  is  greatly  impaired,  and,  if  hurried  in  the  slightest 
degree,  it  is  seized  with  trembling  and  stiffness,  and  may 
even  fall  again.  Of  the  state  of  the  circulation,  when  it 
lies  seriously  ill,  but  little  is  known,  as  the  pulse  has  not 
been  inspected.  One  observer  perceived  that  the  nose  of 
a  heifer  was  hot,  but  others  have  found  that  part  and  the 
skin  generally  cool.  Perhaps  their  observations  were 
made  in  different  stages  of  the  disease.  While  lying 
unable  to  walk,  the  animal  will  still  eat  freely,  and  also 
take  drink,  but  does  not  seem  to  have  excessive  thirst.  Its 
costiveness  continues  to  the  last,  when  the  malady  goes 
on  to  a  fatal  termination.  Of  the  symptoms  which  pre- 
cede dissolution,  we  could  not  obtain  a  satisfactory  ac- 
count. Our  witnesses  generally  declared,  however,  that 
the  abdomen  does  not  swell  in  any  stage  of  the  disease. 
When  it  assumes  a  chronic  form,  the  animal  is  liable,  for 
weeks  and  even  months,  to  muscular  infirmity  under  ex- 
ercise ;  looks  gaunt  and  thin,  its  hair  assumes  a  dead  ap- 
pearance, and  sometimes  falls  off  in  considerable  quan- 
tities, especially  from  the  neck. 

TREATMENT. — "  We  met  with  no  medical  gentleman," 
says  Dr.  Mac  Ilhenny,  "  who  had  subjected  animals  labor- 
ing under  this  disease  to  a  systematic,  or  even  varied, 
empirical  treatment.  All  the  people  of  the  district  have 
one  and  the.same  indication  to  fulfil,  that  of  opening  the 
bowels.  When  this  can  be  effected,  the  animal,  they 
say,  scarcely  ever  dies — when  it  cannot,  death  occurs. 
For  the  fulfilment  of  this  indication,  epsom  salts  have  been 
administered  in  very  large  quantities,  even  to  pounds,  but 
without  effect.  Drenches  of  lard  and  various  mixtures 
have  also  been  given,  with  no  satisfactory  result.  Judge 
Harold,  near  South  Charleston,  has  exhibited  calomel, 
followed  by  lard — no  essential  benefit.  Dr.  Toland  has 
administered  the  oil  of  turpentine,  in  doses  of  eight, 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  197 

twelve,  and  sixteen  ounces,  without  advantage.  An  opin- 
ion is  prevalent,  that  drenching  animals  injures  them  by 
causing  them  to  struggle.  On  the  whole,  we  found  among 
the  people  of  the  district  a  total  want  of  confidence  in  all 
kinds  of  cathartic  medicines  ;  and  an  exclusive  reliance 
on  Indian  corn.  Some  preferred  old  corn,  some  new,  and 
others  that  which  had  been  frost-bitten.  This  is  fed  to 
all  those  species  of  animals  that  are  accustomed  to  eat  it, 
and  is  said  never  to  be  refused.  The  more  the  animal 
will  eat,  the  greater  is  the  hope  of  the  owner.  It  is  said 
to  produce  purging,  when  every  other  means  have  failed, 
and  then  it  is  affirmed,  recovery  is  almost  certain.  On 
these  points  we  found  but  one  opinion  in  the  district. 
Several  of  its  physicians,  after  trying  other  things,  had, 
with  the  people,  settled  down  on  this. 

"  We  found  blood-letting  not  in  favor.  Dr.  Toland 
supposes  it  has,  generally,  been  employed  at  too  late  a 
period.  Many  non-professional  persons  spoke  of  having 
resorted  to  it  without  advantage,  and  some  thought  it  had 
done  harm. 

"  Throughout  the  disease,  rest  is  considered  a  sine  qua 
non  to  the  favorable  effect  of  any  measure,  and  of  itself, 
in  mild  cases,  sufficient ;  that  is,  if  they  be  not  aggravated 
by  exercise,  the  disease  will  wear  itself  out,  or  spontane- 
ously subside." 

YELLOWS. 

SYMPTOMS. — Dullness;  loss  of  appetite ;  the  beast  de- 
sires to  be  alone  ;  milk  decreases  ;  bowels  costive  ;  front 
teeth  sometimes  loose  ;  the  whole  fra-ne  has  a  yellowish 
hue.  like  the  jaundice  in  man. 

TREATMENT. — If  the  pulse  is  strong  and  quick,  bleed 
moderately,  but  not  otherwise.  Give  the  epsom  salt  purge, 
(page  187,)  keep  the  bowels  open  by  half-doses  of  the 


198  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

same  as  occasion  may  require.  While  you  do  tins,  give 
every  morning  the  following  : 

Powdered  gentian  root,  half  an  ounce. 

Powdered  ginger,  one  drachm. 

Epsom  salts,  two  ounces. 

In  a  pint  of  warm  gruel. 

At  night,  give 

Calomel,  one  scruple. 

Opium,  one  scruple,  in  thick  gruel,  well  mixed. 

After  the  yellowness  is  gone,  give  the  above  gentian 
root  dose  twice  a  week  for  a  month. 

HORN  AIL. 

The  following  is  from  the  pen  of  a  disting  uished  Veter- 
inary  surgeon,  and  is  worthy  of  particular  notice.  We 
copy  it  from  the  "  Farmers'  Cabinet :" 

HORN  AIL. — Having  persuaded  myself  that  the  prac- 
tice of  boring  horns  and  applying  spirits  of  turpentine,  etc., 
in  the  disease  called  Horn  Ail,  (which  is  so  very  preva- 
lent in  America,)  is  entirely  wrong  in  principle,  and  has 
the  most  pernicious  consequences  in  practice  ;  I  deem  it 
not  improper  to  recommend,  by  the  means  of  your  valua- 
ble periodical,  a  system  of  cure  by  which,  during  a  long 
veterinary  practice,  both  in  France  and  Philadelphia, 
New- York  and  Harrisburgh,  I  have  been  successful  in 
most  cases  ;  while,  by  the  common  way  of  proceeding,  no 
animal  is  saved,  some  either  not  having  been  attacked  by 
that  disease,  or  getting  cured  by  nature  itself. 

This  disease  is  also  called  the  "  red- water,"  or  blood 
in  the  back  or  loins,  and  arises  principally  from  the  cattle 
being  at  grass  during  the  summer  on  lots  which  are  very 
dry  and  without  shade,  and  from  their  being  exposed  to 
excessive  heat  of  the  sun,  and  to  great  cold  in  winter 
time  ;  there  are  various  other  causes,  as  moory  pastures, 


moist  weather,  etc.,  to  all  which  cattle  in  this  country  are 
generally  exposed  ;  sour  and  mouldy  hay,  and  the  exclu- 
sive feeding  on  corn-stalks,  also  contribute  a  good  deal  to 
this  disorder. 

As  this  disease  is  of  an  inflammatory  character,  the 
application  of  spirits  of  turpentine  and  the  like,  which 
produce  inflammation,  is  entirely  wrong.  This  is  shown 
by  the  strong  throbbing  of  the  heart,  and  the  mixture  of  the 
urine  with  the  blood.  If  you  stir  with  the  forefinger  in 
the  nostrils  of  the  animal,  a  good  deal  of  blood  will  be 
discharged  from  them,  and  if  you  insert  your  hand  into 
the  straight  gut,  you  may  bring  out  whole  lumps  of  blood. 
Boring  the  horns  is,  at  most,  curing  symptoms  and  not  the 
disease  ;  the  farmer  is  unfortunately  confirmed  in  this 
proceeding  by  the  fact,  that  matter  sometimes  is  dis- 
charged from  the  bored  horns  ;  but  it  is  neither  recom- 
mended by  any  experienced  veterinarian,  nor  mentioned 
in  any  scientific  work  on  the  veterinary  art.  I  therefore 
feel  myself  bound  to  recommend  to  every  owner  of  cattle 
the  following  mode  of  cure,  tried  a  good  many  times  by 
me  with  success : 

When  an  animal  is  observed  to  be  suffering  from  this 
disorder,  <*ne  or  two  quarts  of  blood,  according  to  the  size 
of  the  animal,  are  to  be  drawn  immediately  from  a  neck 
vein ;  then  two  table-spoonsful  of  the  following  powder 
are  to  be  given  three  times  a  day,  the  powder  being  pre- 
viously dissolved  in  a  pint  of  lukewarm  water ;  this  is 
to  be  continued  until  the  animal  recovers. 

Glauber  salts,  six  ounces. 

Cream  of  tartar,  two  ounces. 

Purified  saltpetre,  two  ounces. 

Powdered  root  of  althea,  one  ounce  and  a  half. 

It  is  necessary  besides,  to  rub  the  animal  frequently 
during  the  disease,  principally  on  the  back.  But  if  the 


200 

animal  should  be  costive,  either  of  the  following  clysters 
is  to  be  given : 

Take  a  handful  of  camomile  flowers,  two  handsful  of 
flax-seed ;  boil  them  in  two  quarts  of  water,  strain  them, 
and  add  eight  ounces  of  linseed  oil  and  three  table-spoons- 
ful of  common  salt.  This  clyster  is  to  be  applied  by 
means  of  a  syringe. 

Should  these  articles  not  be  at  hand,  take  one  quart  of 
wheat  bran,  pour  two  quarts  of  boiling  water  on  it,  strain 
and  add  eight  ounces  of  flax-seed  oil,  and  two  ounces  of 
common  salt.  This  clyster  is  to  be  lukewarm  when  ap- 
plied to  the  rectum,  or  straight-gut,  by  the  means  of  a 
syringe  or  a  fit  funnel. 

MURRAIN. 

A  correspondent  of  the  New-Genesee  Farmer  recom- 
mends ashes  to  be  given  to  stock  as  a  preventive  of  mur- 
rain. Wm.  Wallace,  of  Barcelona,  Ohio,  says  he  thinks 
saltpetre  much  better — says  a  piece  about  the  size  of  a 
large  kernel  of  corn  should  be  given  once  a  week.  A 
neighbor  of  his  has  used  this  mode  of  prevention  for  twenty 
years,  with  almost  entire  success. 

He  further  says,  "  When  cattle  are  attacked  with  this 
deadly  disease,  I  would  recommend  giving  them,  say,  two 
ounces  of  gum  gamboge,  dissolved.  This  is  a  powerful 
physic  ;  and  it  is  very  necessary  to  get  something  to  pass 
the  animal.  I  believe  that  the  dry  murrain,  always 
precedes  the  bloody  murrain,  and  is  the  cause  of  this  last 
and  most  fatal  disorder,  which  is  often  quite  prevalent  in 
the  Western  country." 

HOW  TO  ASCERTAIN  THE  AGE  OF  NEAT  CATTLE. 

BY  THE  TEETH. — The  calf  is  usually  born  with  two  fore 
or  cutting  teeth,  and  at  a  month  old,  the  whole  eight  are 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  201 

cut.  The  age  is  then  guessed  at  by  the  wearing  down  of 
these  teeth  until  the  calf  is  eight  months  old,  when  they  be- 
gin  to  become  narrower  and  smaller.  At  eight  months  the 
two  centre  teeth  are  smaller  than  the  rest ;  and  from  that 
time  until  eighteen  months  the  others  gradually  diminish, 
until  the  whole  are  very  considerably  lessened  in  size  and 
stand  apart  from  each  other. 

At  two  years  old  the  two  middle  teeth  are  pushed  out, 
and  succeeded  by  two  permanent  ones  ;  at  three  there  are 
four  permanent  teeth  ;  six  at  four  years ;  and  all  the 
eight  at  five,  when  the  animal  is  said  to  be  full-mouthed  ; 
but  he  is  not  actually  so  until  six  years  old,  when  all  the 
eight  are  level. 

A  good  judge  of  cattle,  will  generally  determine  the 
age  with  considerable  accuracy  for  many  years  after  that. 
From  six  to  nine  he  will  be  guided  by  the  wearing  down 
of  the  teeth,  and  after  that  by  the  diminution  in  their  bulk, 
as  in  the  milk  teeth.  At  nine  the  two  middle  fore  teeth 
are  evidently  smaller  and  narrower  than  the  rest ;  at  ten 
the  two  next  are  so ;  and  so  on  until  twelve,  when,  as  in 
the  steer  of  two  years  old,  the  teeth  again  begin  to  stand 
singularly  apart  from  each  other. 

BY  THE  HORNS. — The  surface  of  the  horn  continues 
nearly  smooth  until  the  expiration  of  the  second  year  of 
the  animal's  life,  when  a  wrinkle  or  circle  of  thicker  horn 
begins  to  be  formed  around  the  base.  This  is«fully  com- 
pleted in  a  twelvemonth,  and  another  ring  then  begins  to 
appear,  so  that  if  the  perfect  rings  or  circles  are  counted, 
and  two  added  to  them,  the  age  of  the  beast  is  supposed 
to  be  ascertained.  These  rings,  however,  are  not  clear 
and  distinct,  and  it  is  very  easy  to  remove  one  or  two  of 
them  with  a  rasp,  at  least  to  the  unpracticed  eye,  when 
the  animal  begins  to  be  unmarketably  old.  In  addition 
to  this  a  well-known  fact  should  be  stated,  that  if  a  heifer 

9* 


202  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

takes  the  bull  at  about  two  years  old,  the  first  ring  is  form- 
ed  a  twelvemonth  before  its  usual  time,  and,  consequently, 
she  would  always  appear  to  be,  reckoning  by  her  horns,  a 
twelvemonth  older  than  she  really  is. 

After  all,  the  age,  as  denoted  by  the  horn,  can  only  be 
calculated  in  the  cow  ;  these  rings  do  not  appear  in  the 
ox  or  bull  until  the  animal  is  five  years  old,  and  then 
they  are  most  frequently  too  confused  to  be  accurately 
counted. 

PHYSICKING    CATTLE. 

Purging  medicines  operate  by  increasing  the  evacuation 
of  faeces  from  the  bowels,  and  thus  often  removing  a  very 
considerable  source  of  irritation.  They  augment  the 
secretion  of  the  exhalent  vessels  situated  on  the  internal 
coat  of  the  intestines,  and  thus,  by  producing  watery  stools, 
lessen  the  quantity  of  fluid  through  the  system.  They 
divert  the  increased  flow  of  the  blood  from  the  affected 
organ,  and  determine  it  to  the  bowels,  which  is  well  elu- 
cidated in  red-water ;  and  they  have  a  peculiar  influence 
on  the  nervous  system,  augmenting  the  energy  of  the 
nerves  distributed  to  the  intestines,  but  diminishing  it 
in  other  parts  of  the  system. 

The  chief  purgatives  in  use  for  neat  cattle  are  glauber 
salts,  epsom  salts,  Barbadoes  aloes,  linseed  oil  and  sul- 
phur. In  obstinate  constipation  of  the  bowels,  ten  or 
fifteen  grains  of  the  farina  of  the  croton  nut,  freshly  pre- 
pared, may  be  added  with  good  effect.  One  pound  of 
glauber,  or  epsom  salts,  will  purge  a  full-sized  beast. 
Aloes  are  very  properly  getting  into  disuse  ;  they  are 
uncertain  in  their  effect,  they  require  very  considerable 
doses  of  them  to  be  given  in  order  to  act  alone,  and  if  they 
should  be  received  into  the  rumen  they  are  apt  1o  disgust 
and  nauseate  the  animal.  Half  an  ounce,  or  six  drachms 
of  them,  however,  may  be  added  to  the  salts  in  particular 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.       .  203 

diseases.  Where  there  is  considerable  fever,  or  the  at- 
tack of  fever  is  apprehended,  there  is  no  purgative  so 
beneficial  as  the  epsom  salts.  In  bad  cases,  twenty-four 
ounces  may  be  given  at  a  dose,  and  eight  ounces  of  sul- 
phur every  six  hours  afterward,  until  the  full  purgative 
effect  is  produced.  Linseed  oil  is  rapidly  superseding 
the  more  expensive  and  more  uncertain  castor  oil ;  the 
dose  is  from  a  pint  to  a  pint  and  a  half.  As  a  mild  ape- 
rient, and  in  cases  where  there  is  no  great  degree  of 
fever,  and  a  violent  purge  is  not  required,  there  are  few 
better  things  than  sulphur.  Where  nothing  else  is  at 
hand,  and  the  case  is  urgent,  common  salt  is  no  contempt- 
ible medicine  :  a  pound  of  it  dissolved  in  water,  will 
produce  a  fair  purgative  effect,  but  it  should  not  be  given 
if  the  animal  labors  under  a  fever.  The  following  are 
the  cases  in  which  purgative  medicines  are  found 
useful : 

1.  We  have  known  some  old  graziers  who,  when  feed- 
ing old  cows,  (during  summer)  have  given  them  a  purging 
drink  about  every  six  weeks,  by  way  of  keeping  off  the 
downfall,  which  in  general  has  the  desired  effect,  and  has 
even  caused  them  to  fatten  more  rapidly. 

2.  A   purging  drink    is  very  properly  given  to  cows 
soon  after  calving,  in  order  to  prevent  the  milk-fever. 

3.  Neat  cattle  are  naturally  of  a  greedy  and  ravenous 
disposition,  and  their  appetite    is    hardly   ever  satisfied. 
Milch  cows  in  particular,  if  feeding  on  herbage,  or  other 
food  aoreeable  to  their  palate,  will  often  continue  to  graze 
until  they  are  in  danger  of  suffocation.     Thus  the  powers 
of  digestion   become   over-burdened,  and  the  animal  ap- 
pears dull  and  heavy,  and  feverish  symptoms  are  induced. 
Purgatives  will  give  the  most  effectual    relief  in  these 
cases,  and  if  the  appetite  does  not  return  soon  after  the 
physic,  a  cordial  ball  will  be  useful  in  restoring  it. 


204  *  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

THE  PULSE  OF  CATTLE. 

The  blood  flows  through  the  arteries  by  the  force 
impressed  upon  it  by  the  heart*  This  is  felt  in  the 
pulsations  of  the  arteries,  which  correspond  with  the  con- 
tractions of  the  heart,  and  indicate  not  only  the  number 
but  the  rtatufe  of  these  contractions,  whether  propelling 
a  greater  or  smaller  quantity  of  blood.  By  the  number 
and  the  force  of  the  pulsations,  the  degree  of  fever  is 
indicated  with  considerable  certainty.  The  heat  of  the 
mouth,  and  the  base  of  the  horns,  will  be  important 
guides ,'  but  a  much  safer  one,  and  more  clearly  ascer- 
taining the  extent  and  the  nature  of  the  fever,  is  the 
action  of  the  heart  faithfully  represented  by  the  pulse. 
Wherever  the  finger  can  be  placed  on  an  artery  that  is 
not  too  thinly  covered  by  cellular  membrane  of  fat,  and 
that  has"  some  firm  substance  beneath,  the  pulse  may  be 
felt;  but  most  conveniently  so  where,  at  the  back  part  of 
the  lower  jaw,  the  artery  comes  from  the  channel  between 
the  jaws,  and  passes  over  the  edge  of  the  jaw-bone,  to 
ramify  on  the  face. 

The  natural  pulse  of  the  full-grown  ox  varies  from  fifty 
to  fifty-five  beats  in  a  minute,  but  is  quicker  in  milch  cows 
than  in  oxen,  and  particularly  toward  the  period  of  par- 
turition. A  pulse  much  quicker  than  that  here  stated, 
denotes  fever  or  inflammation  ;  while  one  much  slower 
indicates  sluggishness  of  the  circulation,  or  debility. 

In  another  part  of  this  volume,  may  be  found  remarks 
on  the  pulse  of  neat  cattle,  to  which  the  reader's  attention 
is  invited.  See  index. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.          205 

DISEASES    OF     SHEEP. 

RED  WATER, 

SYMPTOMS. — Dullness;  off  its  feed;  panting:  restless- 
ness ;  flanks  drawn  up  ;  costive  at  times  ;  sometimes  pur- 
ging- 

TREATMENT. — Put  the  animal  in  a  dry  place  ;  bleed 
about  a  pint,  if  full  grown  ;  then  give, 

Epsom  salts,  one  pound. 

Powdered  ginger,  one  scruple. 

Gentian  root,  one  drachm. 

Warm  water,  two  ounces. 

Linseed  oil,  one  ounce. 

Give  in  warm  gruel — one  fourth  or  one  half  if  a  Iamb. 
The  belly  should  be  well  fomented  with  hot  water. 

THE    BLOOD. 

This  disease  is  well  known. 

SYMPTOMS. — Dullness ;  head  hangs  down  ;  eyes  heavy 
and  bloodshot ;  heaving  at  the  flanks  ;  difficult  to  move  ; 
staggering  ,'  stretching  out  the  fore-legs  to  ease  himself. 

TREATMENT. — Bleed  instantly  and  freely  ;  at  least  a 
full  pint.  The  jugular  vein  is  the  proper  vein  to  bleed 
from.  The  sheep  should  be  bled  until  it  is  evidently 
weakened  by  it.  Then  give  two  ounces  of  epsom  salts 
in  warm  gruel  every  two  hours,  till  the  beast  is  thorough- 
ly purged  The  purging  should  be  continued  for  two  or 
three  days.  The  bowels  well  purged,  give  the  following 
medicine,  morning  and  night,  till  the  sheep  is  evidently 
better  : 

Powdered  digitalis,  one  scruple. 

Tartar  emetic,  ten  grains. 

Nitre,  two  drachms,  in  warm  gruel. 


206  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

THE    ROT. 

SYMPTOMS. — The  first  thing  which  indicates  the  presence 
of  this  disease,  is  the  unwillingness  of  the  affected  animal 
to  move  about.  It  lags  behind  the  flock,  ascends  a  slope 
with  difficulty,  and  has  a  listless,  heavy,  pithless  appear- 
ance. Cough,  varying  in  frequency  and  violence,  but  ex- 
tremely harassing,  is  present  at  every  period  of  the  dis- 
ease, and  is  always  increased  on  the  slightest  exertion. 
At  first,  this  is  accompanied  by  expectoration  of  the  mucus 
of  the  air  tubes  ;  but  in  no  long  time  pur'ulent  matter,  in- 
dicative of  more  extensive  inroads  on  the  constitution,  be- 
gins to  be  coughed  up,  and  goes  on  increasing  in  quantity 
and  becoming  worse  in  quality,  till  the  termination  of  the 
disease.  The  wool  becomes  fine,  white,  thin,  and  brittle 
in  the  pile,  and  is  easily  brought  away  in  masses  by  the 
slightest  pull.  The  appetite  is,  throughout  the  disease, 
voracious,  and  though  all  the  bad  symptoms  may  be  pre- 
sent, still  the  animal  keeps  up  an  appearance  of  plump- 
ness. This,  however,  is  hollow  and  deceitful ;  and  the 
rapid  loss  of  flesh  which  immediately  succeeds,  shows 
with  what  insidious  certainty  the  malady  has  been  pro- 
gressing. Owing  to  the  falling  off  in  flesh  ahd  in  fat,  the 
neck  appears  to  have  acquired  additional  length,  and  the 
eyes  to  have  sunk  within  the  head.  Sooner  or  later,  the 
skin  beneath  the  neck  becomes  distended  with  serous 
fluid,  and  from  this  the  disease  has  acquired  the  name  of 
Poke.  The  word,  however,  is  far  from  applicable,  as  it 
might,  with  equal  propriety,  stand  for  any  other  disease 
attended  with  dropsical  accumulations. 

TREATMENT. — Common  salt  is  the  very  best  medicine 
that  can  be  used.  Let  the  animal  have  constant  access 
to  this. 

But  something  more  should  be  done.  Evacuate  the 
bowels  by  an  epsom  salt  purge,  and  give  a  table-spoon- 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  207 

ful  of  the  following  mixture,  night  and  morning,  for  a 
week  : 

Common  salt,  eight  ounces. 

Powdered  gentian  root,  two  ounces. 

Powdered  ginger,  one  ounce. 

Tincture  of  Colombo,  four  ounces. 

In  a  quart  of  water. 

After  a  week,  give  the  above  every  morning,  and  at 
night  two  table-spoonsful  of  the  following  : 

Common  salt,  eight  ounces. 

Powdered  gentian,  two  ounces. 

Powdered  ginger,  one  ounce. 

Tincture  of  Colombo,  four  ounces. 

Spirits  of  turpentine,  three  ounces. 

Mix  in  a  quart  of  warm  water. 

ANOTHER    RECIPE     FOR   THE    ROT. 

Fox-glove  leaves,  two  ounces. 

Boiling  water,  two  pints. 

Pour  the  water  on  the  leaves,  cover  up  the  vessel,  and 
keep  it  in  a  warm  place  six  or  eight  hours.  Then  strain 
it. 

Give  two  tea  spoonsful  morning  and  evening,  for  si? 
days  :  then  omit  it  two  or  three  days,  and  give  again. 

DROPSY. 

When  it  is  the  concluding  symptom  of  a  disease,  it  may 
be  reckoned  part  of  the  complaint  itself,  and  treated  accord- 
ingly. Often,  however,  it  is  the  first  thing  which  attracts 
the  attention  of  the  shepherd,  and  when  such  is  the  case, 
it  will  usually  be  traced  to  long  exposure  to  cold  and  wet. 
In  this  event,  the  best  plan  is  to  bleed  largely,  and  give 
two  or  three  smart  doses  of  epsom  salts.  When  it  occurs 
in  young  lambs,  sweet  spirits  of  nitre,  given  in  the  quan- 


208  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

tity  of  a  tea-spoonful  twice  a  day,  is  found  to  be  attended 
with  the  happiest  effects.  Tapping,  or,  as  it  is  popularly 
termed,  stabbing,  or  sticking,  to  permit  the  escape  of  water, 
is  the  cure  resorted  to  in  South  Africa,  when  it  appears 
in  old  sheep,  after  exposure  to  rain  ;  but  this  ought  never 
to  be  resorted  to  unless  under  the  guidance  of  a  medical 
person.  It  would  be  much  better  at  once  to  kill  the 
sheep. 

FOOT  ROT. 

Spirits  of  turpentine  applied  to  the  parts  affected,  with 
a  feather,  twice  a  day,  is  recommended. 

SORE    TEATS. 

When  a  ewe  is  observed  to  hinder  the  lamb  from  suck- 
ing, its  teats  should  be  examined.  If  much  inflamed,  a 
poultice  should  be  applied,  and  the  lamb  placed  under 
the  charge  of  another  nurse.  Suppuration  will  thus  be 
promoted,  and  the  matter  may  be  allowed  to  escape  by 
making  an  opening  for  it  at  the  place  it  points.  If  there 
be  only  a  little  tenderness  of  the  skin,  all  that  is  required 
is  the  washing  of  it  with  a  solution  either  of  sugar  of 
lead  or  sulphate  of  zinc,  eight  grains  to  the  ounce  of 
water. 

BLOWN,  OR   BLAST. 

TREATMENT. — Some  persons  thrust  a  small  knife  into 
the  paunch.  This  frequently  gives  relief,  but  leaves  the 
animal  liable  to  have  the  difficulty  again.  If  the  sheep 
be  driven  about  gently,  for  an  hour  or  two,  it  may  get  re- 
lief  in  the  early  stages  of  the  complaint. 

If  not,  evacuate  with  the  following  gentle  purge: 

Epsom  or  glauber  salts,  one  ounce. 

Peppermint  water,  four  ounces. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  209 

Tincture  of  ginger,  one  drachm,  or  a  little  powdered 
ginger. 

Powdered  gentian,  two  drachms. 

Boiling  water,  two  ounces. 

Give  every  six  hours  till  purged ;  and  half  the  quan- 
tity every  morning  for  four  days. 

YELLOWS. 

SYMPTOMS. — Dullness  ;  yellowness  of  the  eyes,  mouth 
and  skin,  generally ;  urine  dark  at  times. 

TREATMENT.— As  soon  as  the  least  yellowness  is  seen, 
take  the  beast  to  a  poor  pasture,  and  purge  it  with  the 
following : 

Epsom  salts,  two  ounces. 

Powdered  caraways,  quarter  of  an  ounce. 

Dissolved  in  warm  gruel. 

Half-doses  of  this  should  be  given  every  morning  for  a 
week  or  more.  Should  the  animal  be  weak,  give, 

Gentian,  two  drachms. 

Colombo,  one  drachm. 

Ginger,  half  a  drachm,  in  warm  gruel. 

THE  SCAB. 

This  is  an  infectious  disease,  and  a  pest  to  the  shep- 
herd. 

SYMPTOMS.— Itching  to  a  painful  degree  ;  sometimes 
the  beast  tears  the  wool  off  in  mouthfuls ;  thin,  ragged, 
mean  look.  The  body  often  has  upon  it  dry  scurf,  or  recJ 
spots  ;  the  roots  of  the  wool  often  matted  together. 

TREATMENT.— Some  persons  use  tobacco  infused  in 
boiling  water,  at  the  rate  of  a  quarter  of  a  pound  to  a  gal- 
Ion  of  water.  Others  use  mercurial  ointment ;  but  prob- 
ably the  best  way  is,  to  use  an  ointment  made  as  follows : 


210 

Flour  of  sulphur,  one  pound. 

Venice  turpentine,  four  ounces. 

Rancid  lard,  two  pounds. 

Mercurial  ointment,  four  ounces. 

Rubbed  well  together. 

Great  care  should  be  observed  in  rubbing  the  ointment 
into  the  body  of  the  sheep.  The  wool  should  be  parted 
by  the  hand,  and  as  thorough  an  application  be  made  as 
possible.  Continue  this  treatment  till  the  sheep  ceases 
its  violent  scratching  ;  using  the  ointment  every  other 
day.  There  is  not  the  slightest  danger  in  this  treatment, 
and  it  is  usually  efficacious. 

PURGING. 

TREATMENT. — In  slight  cases,  suet  boiled  in  milk  is  suffi- 
cient. If  very  bad,  give  once  or  twice  a  day  the  following  : 

Prepared  chalk,  quarter  of  an  ounce. 

Powdered  ginger,  half  a  drachm. 

Powdered  opium,  two  grains ;  in  warm  gruel,  till  the 
disease  gives  way. 

GRUBS. 

The  grub  in  the  head  of  a  sheep,  is  the  larva  or  mag- 
got of  a  fly,  which  deposites  its  egg  in  the  nose,  generally 
in  the  month  of  August.  The  egg  soon  hatches,  and  the 
young  maggot  soon  makes  its  way  up  into  the  cavities, 
called  the  frontal  sinuses,  where  it  attains  its  growth, 
causing  constant  irritation  and  disease,  and  not  unfre- 
quently  death.  Arrived  at  its  growth,  it  falls  to  the  earth, 
enters  it,  and  in  a  short  time  emerges  a  perfect  insect  or 
fly,  ready  to  commence  the  career  of  reproduction  and 
destruction.  We  formerly  lost  many  sheep  from  the  grub, 
and  could  find  no  cure  for  them,  or  but  very  partial  ones, 
after  it  became  evident  they  were  diseased.  Our  course 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK  211 

was  preventive.  About  the  time  the  fly  made  its  ap- 
pearance, which  is  easily  known  by  their  exhibiting  great 
alarm,  running  from  one  part  of  the  field  to  another,  with 
their  noses  close  to  the  ground,  etc.,  we  caught  one  sheep, 
and  with  a  wooden  spatula,  or  flat  stick,  rubbed  the  nose 
with  tar.  We  then  placed  tar  at  the  bottom  of  our  salt- 
ing troughs,  over  which  the  salt  was  sprinkled,  and  this 
brought  their  noses  frequently  in  contact  with  the  tar. 
This  course  we  found  a  great  preventive.  Sheep,  du- 
ring the  period  they  are  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  the  fly, 
should  have  access  to  a  ploughed  field,  or  if  such  is  not 
convenient,  a  few  furrows  should  occasionally  be  opened 
in  their  pastures  for  their  benefit.  Inhaling  the  dust,  or 
rubbing  their  noses  in  it,  renders  the  mucus  disagreeable 
to  the  fly,  or  enables  the  sheep  to  expel  the  larva  when  de- 
posited. With  these  preventives,  we  have  rarely  lost  a 
sheep  from  the  grub,  and  think,  that  in  most  cases,  they 
will  be  effectual. 

WINTER-KEEPING  OF  SHEEP 

The  following  is  extracted  from  Fessenden's  Complete 
Farmer : 

"  Perhaps  there  is  no  domestic  animal  that  requires 
more  nice  and  constant  attention  than  the  sheep,  and  no 
other  that  will  more  richly  pay  for  generous  keeping. 
Though  he  may  not  be  liable  to  disease,  nor  require  a 
better  quality  of  food  than  neat  stock,  still  that  manage- 
ment which  will  keep  cattle  in  good  case  will  not  answer 
for  sheep.  His  habits  and  mode  of  feeding  are  entirely 
different.  For  instance,  in  the  winter  season,  a  cow  may 
be  kept  tied  to  the  stall  twenty-two  hours  out  of  the  twen- 
ty-four, and,  if  well  fed  three  times  a  day,  keep  her  flesh 
and  get  sufficient  exercise  for  her  health.  Serve  a  sheep 
in  the  same  manner,  and  it  would  not  probably  live  a 


212  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

month.  It  is  natural  for  sheep  to  move  about  and  change 
situation.  Turn  a  flock  of  hungry  sheep  into  a  pasture, 
they  will  run  to  the  end  of  it  before  they  begin  to  eat , 
feed  them  in  troughs,  they  will  run  overall  till  they  come 
to  the  last,  when  they  have  it  in  their  power.  They  are 
almost  continually  shifting  situation  from  hill  to  dale,  from 
one  kind  of  food  to  another ;  and  it  is  a  fact,  that  sheep 
will  thrive  better  on  two  or  three  different  kinds  of  ordi- 
nary fodder,  than  they  will  to  be  confined  to  one  kind  that 
is  of  a  superior  quality. 

"  The  proper  time  to  yard  sheep  in  the  fall,  is  while 
they  are  yet  in  good  order  from  fresh  feed,  and  before  the 
frost  takes  the  nourishing  qualities  out  of  the  grass  :  but 
a  time  in  which  many  sheep  are  not  folded,  they  are  left 
to  nibble  over  the  frozen  pastures  till  they  lose  the  flesh 
of  half  a  summer's  keeping,  and  which  takes  half  a  sum- 
mer to  regain.  It  is  a  great  error  which  is  persisted  in, 
with  an  idea  to  save  fodder.  But  setting  aside  the  injury 
done  pastures  by  close  feeding  at  this  season  of  the  year, 
the  sheep  which  stray  away  and  are  lost,  and  the  time 
spent  in  hunting  them,  which  are  not  idle  considerations, 
the  farmer  would  more  than  get  repaid  for  his  extra  fod- 
cfcjr,  and  a  few  weeks'  attention  in  yarding  his  sheep  soon- 
er, by  preserving  their  health  and  condition.  When  they 
are  put  in  winter-quarters,  they  require  as  much  variety 
as  possible ;  not  that  they  want  so  much  room,  but  they 
need  a  number  of  apartments.  Two  yards  and  one  shed 
will  do  very  well  for  one  flock  ;  or  what  will  answer  the 
same  purpose,  if  a  large  number  of  sheep  are  to  be  kept 
near  each  other,  have  the  yards  in  a  row,  and  one  more 
yard  than  flocks  of  sheep.  Then,  by  shifting  one  flock  to 
the  spare  yard,  it  leaves  another  vacant,  and  so  on.  Thus 
may  all  be  changed,  which  should  be  done  at  every  time 
of  feeding.  As  fast  as  the  yards  are  empty,  the  food 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  213 

should  be  put  into  them,  and  never  while  the  sheep  are 
there.  One  hundred  sheep  are  enough  to  be  kept  togeth- 
er. Cleanliness  is  of  the  utmost  importance.  Their  yards 
should  be  littered  with  straw  or  something  of  the  kind, 
constantly,  or  they  will  be  in  danger  of  losing  in  a  degree 
a  relish  for  their  food. 

"  The  next  thing  necessary  is,  to  have  proper  places  for 
your  sheep  to  eat  hay  in,  which  are  the  common  board 
mangers,  and  may  make  partings  to  the  yards.     Take 
six  joists,  say  three  inches  square,  and  four  feet  long ; 
have  the  boards  of  a  length,  then  nail  two  of  them  to  the 
joists  set  up  perpendicularly,  in  such  a  manner  that  one 
joist  will  be  in  the  middle  of  each  board,  and  the  other  two 
at  the  ends,   and  that  the  top  edge  of  the  boards  will  be 
one  foot  from  the  ground  ;  then   nail  short  boards  to  the 
ends  two  feet  and  a  half  long,  the  width  of  the  manger,  the 
next  board  on  the  sides  to  be  placed  eight  inches  from  the 
lower  boards ;   then  board  it  tight  to  the  top  of  the  joists 
.  and  the  manger  is  finished.      A  manger   eighteen   feet 
lono-,  of  this  description,  will  accommodate  thirty  sheep. 
Single  mano-ers  may  be  made  along  the  outside  fence 
the  Vard,  which  do  not  require  to  be  so  wide.     The  great 
superiority  of  these  mangers  over  racks  is,  first,  the  facil- 
ity of  putting  hay  into  them  without  dropping  it  on  the 
ground  ;  secondly,  it  obviates  the  danger  of  hay-seed  fall- 
ing on  the  wool  of  the  sheep  ;  and  thirdly,  it  prevents 
any  waste  of  fodder.     The  next  thing  after  mangers  for 
hay,  should  be  a  place  appropriated  for  feeding  out  roots, 
which  every  farmer  should  raise  to  a  certain  extent.     Al- 
thou-h  we  cannot  turn  them  to  so  good  an  account  as  the 
English  feeders  do,  on  account  of  the  severity  of  our  win- 
ters, still  a  proportion  of  them,  as  food  for  our  stock,  is  of 
great  importance.     In  order  that  the  farmer  may  make 
the  most  of  his  roots,  he  should  have  a  cellar  fixed  to  re- 


214 

ceive  them  in  the  fall,  without  too  much  labor,  and  acces- 
sible at  any  time  in  the  winter,  without  endangering  them 
by  frost.  The  cellar  should  be  placed  as  near  the  yard 
as  practicable,  with  a  watering  place  at  hand.  A  good 
way  of  washing  roots  is,  to  have  an  oblong  box  that  will 
hold  two  or  three  bushels,  with  the  bottom  perforated  with 
auger  holes,  and  rockers  placed  on  the  under  side  of  the 
box  ;  then,  by  pouring  a  little  water  and  rocking  them^ 
the  dirt  will  directly  wash  through  the  bottom  of  the  box. 
They  should  then  be  cut  fine  with  a  sharp  shovel,  and 
they  are  fit  for  feeding  out.  Browse  in  the  winter  occa- 
sionally for  sheep  is  very  palatable,  and  is  of  considerable 
use  in  preserving  their  appetite,  and  as  a  change  of  food  ; 
but  care  should  be  taken  to  select  the  right  kind.  There 
are  many  kinds  of  hard  wood,  of  which  the  bark  and  buds 
are  very  injurious.*  The  bark  of  the  black  cherry  eaten 
by  ewes  with  lamb,  is  almost  sure  to  produce  abortion. 
Generally,  winter-green  is  to  be  preferred  to  any  other 
browse.  White  and  yellow  pine  are  best. 

"•Regularity  in  feeding  sheep  is  of  prime  consequence 
in  cold,  dry  weather.  It  is  not  necessary  to  feed  them 
oftener  than  three  times  a  day,  if  discretion  is  used  in  the 
quantity  of  fodder.  In  warm  weather,  and  especially  if 
it  is  muddy,  they  should  have  little  at  a  time,  and  be  fed 
four  or  five  times  a  day.  Daubenton  and  others  calculate 
that  two  pounds  of  hay  are  sufficient  for  the  support  of 
one  sheep  a  day,  (which,  by  the  way,  is  not  enough.) 
Calculations  of  this  kind,  if  made  with  the  utmost  accu- 
racy on  one,  or  any  number  of  sheep  at  one  time,  will 
not  apply  to  the  one  sheep  at  another ;  because  so  much 
depends  on  circumstances.  A  sheep  that  will  eat  three 
pounds  of  hay  in  a  cold  day,  will  not,  perhaps,  eat  more 
than  two  in  a  warm  day  following  ;  and  still  less  in  a  damp 

*  The  wood  disease,  so  much  complained  of  in  France,  is  wholly  owing  to  sheep 
eating  fresh  buds. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  215 

one.  Not  that  they  require  so  much  more  food  in  cold 
weather  than  in  warm,  but  that  sudden  changes  affect 
their  appetites  and  without  injuring  their  health.  Again, 
a  sheep  of  proper  form  and  inclination  to  fatten,  will  not 
need  so  much  nutriment  to  preserve  its  health,  as  one  of 
the  same  weight  of  a  coarse,  rawboned,  uneasy  make. 

From  present  experiments,  the  introduction  and  raising 
of  SHEEP  on  the  vast  prairies  of  the  West  are  to  be  antici- 
pated, and  it  would  not  be  surprising  if  there  should  be  a 
great  change  in  the  territory  to  which  the  consumers  of 
wool  must  look  for  much  of  their  raw  material.  Hitherto, 
the  New-England  and  Middle  States  have  principally  fur- 
nished ihe  market  with  wool.  But  sheep  are  already  begin- 
ning to  acquire  importance  in  the  view  of  the  farmers  and 
planters  of  the  West  and  South ;  and  if  the  importation  of 
1100  merino  bucks  in  a  single  year  into  South  America, 
produced  such  a  change  in  their  flocks,  why  may  not 
equally  as  striking  a  result  be  effected  in  the  Western  and 
Southern  States  by  a  similar  introduction  there  ?  Mil- 
lions of  sheep  could  be  sustained  at  little  expense  on  the 
belt  of  the  oak-timber  land  running  through  Georgia, 
seventy  miles  wide  by  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  long. 
Indeed,  there  is  scarcely  one  of  the  Southern  States  but 
would  furnish  some  good  section  for  the  keeping  of  flocks 
on  the  uplands.  Planters  are  now  also  actually  begin- 
ning to  collect  their  flocks.  The  sheep-raising  States  of 
the  North  must  expect  competition.  The  farmer  in  the 
higher  and  colder  latitudes,  who  has  to  fodder  his  flocks 
for  a  long  winter,  will  certainly  feel  the  effect  of  this  new 
direction  of  sheep  husbandry,  brought,  as  he  will  be,  into 
competition  with  those  who  enjoy  the  advantage  of  an  al- 
most perennial  spring.  So  soon  as  the  planter  ceases  to 
be  absorbed  in  the  production  of  cotton,  the  streams  of  the 
South  will  be  lined  with  mills,  and  various  operations  of 


216 

machinery.  The  Northern  and  Middle  States  cannot  but 
see  that  it  will  do  so.  There  are  many  locations  south 
and  west  of  the  Delaware,  where  three  sheep  at  least  can 
be  kept  as  cheap  as  one  can  on  the  confines  of  the  Can- 
adas. 

Pasturage  to  almost  any  extent  covers  the  prairie  range, 
and  grass  or  grain  for  a  short  winter's  feed,  are  cut  and 
reaped  by  machines  at  a  trifling  expense.  One  gentle- 
man, it  is  stated,  in  the  vicinity  of  Buffalo,  New-York, 
having  a  prairie  farm  in  Illinois  of  some  five  hundred 
acres,  purchased  two  thousand  sheep,  which  he  placed 
upon  it,  under  the  care  of  two  faithful  shepherds.  The 
sheep  were  kept  without  difficulty  in  the  best  of  health,  and 
the  proprietor,  as  the  first  fruits  of  his  enterprise,  received 
six  thousand  pounds  of  good  wool,  worth  thirty  cents  per 
pound.  The  transportation  from  Illinois  to  Buffalo  cost 
about  one  cent  per  pound.  These  facts  are  mentioned, 
not  to  discourage  effort,  but  to  prepare  the  producer  of 
wool  to  meet  the  condition  of  things  that  must  soon  take 
place,  in  a  state  of  general  peace  and  depression  of  price 
of  all  the  staple  products. 


DISEASE  S    OF    SWINE. 

Swine  are  subject  to  a  few  diseases  that  are  not  very 
easy  of  remedy.  The  best  preventive  is,  to  keep  them 
clean  and  cool  in  summer,  and  to  allow  no  carrion  or  filth 
whatever,  to  remain  in  or  near  their  styes.  This  rule 
would  require  to  be  more  attended  to  in  these  provinces. 
The  diseases  they  are  most  subject  to  are,  pox  or  mea- 
sles, blood-striking,  staggers,  quinsy,  indigestion,  catarrh, 
peripneumonia,  and  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  called 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  217 

heavings.  When  pigs  are  sick,  if  they  will  eat  they  will 
take  medicine  in  their  food  ;  but  if  they  will  not  eat  there 
is  scarcely  any  help  for  them.  As  aperients,  cleansers, 
and  alternatives,  sulphur,  antimony,  and  madder,  are  the 
grand  specifics,  and  are  truly  useful.  As  cordials  and 
tonics,  treacle  and  strong  beer  in  warm  wash,  and  good 
peas  and  pollard.  In  the  measles,  give  sulphur,  etc.,  and 
if  the  animal  require  it,  cordials  occasionally.  In  stag- 
gers, bleeding,  fresh  air  and  nitre.  In  catarrh,  a  warm 
bed,  and  warm  cordial  wash  ;  and  the  same  in  quinsy,  or 
inflammation  of  the  glands  in  the  throat.  If  external 
suppuration  appear  likely,  discharge  the  matter  when  ripe, 
and  dress  with  tar  and  brandy  or  balsam.  The  heavings 
or  unsoundness  of  the  lungs  in  pigs,  like  the  unsoundness 
of  the  liver  in  lambs,  is  sometimes  found  to  be  hereditary  ; 
there  is  then  no  remedy.  This  disease  in  pigs  is  often  the 
consequence  of  cold  from  wet  lodging,  or  of  a  hasty  feed- 
ing in  a  poor  state  ;  in  a  certain  state  it  is  highly  inflam- 
matory, and  without  remedy.  Unction  with  train  oil,  and 
the  internal  use  of  it,  have  been  thought  beneficial.  Salt, 
nitre,  and  sulphur,  occasionally  given  in  the  food  of  swine, 
will  be  found  a  good  preventive  of  diseases  in  these  use- 
ful animals. 

MEASLES. 

Occasional  doses  of  sulphur,  and  lighter  food. 
KIDNEY  WORMS. 

We  sometimes  have  a  hog  or  hogs  become  weak  in  the 
loins,  and  finally  drop  their  hind-parts  without  being  able 
to  raise  them  again,  which,  when  they  move,  are  dragged 
along.  This,  in  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  one  hundred,  is 
produced  by  what  are  called  kianey  worms.  To  prevent 
this,  or  to  effect  a  cure  after  a  hog  has,  as  we  say 

10 


218  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

broken  down,  requires  nothing  but  a  free  u^e  of  copperas 
dissolved  in  water,  and  mixed  with  meal  so  as  to  form  a 
dough.  It  will  require  some  six  or  eight  doses  to  cure  a 
hog  after  he  has  got  down.  All  farmers  should  give  this 
preparation  to  their  hogs  several  times  in  the  spring  of  the 
year — in  fact,  it  is  good  for  them  occasionally  through 
the  year.  I  had  a  hog  down  last  year,  dragging  itself 
about  for  several  days  before  I  gave  him  copperas,  which, 
after  I  commenced,  soon  effected  a  cure,  and  he  was  on 
his  feet  again. 

Copperas  will  destroy  the  large  worms  frequently  found 
in  the  bowels  of  a  hog,  as  well  as  those  that  are  in  the 
kidneys.  One  ounce,  or  less,  is  enough  for  a  hog  at  a 
time,  and  given  once  a  day  is  enough  in  any  case.  Sul- 
phur is  also  good  for  hogs,  and  enough  of  it  will  make 
them  shed  lice,  if  they  have  any,  and  may  be  given  with- 
out any  risk  of  danger  ;  or  at  least,  if  there  is  any  danger 
in  giving  it,  I  have  never  found  it  out. — Southern  Culti- 
vator. 

J.  P.  Kirtland,  in  the  "  Western  Farmer"  of  Cincinnati, 
says  that  "  a  persevering  use  of  corn,  soaked  in  an  alka- 
line solution,  a  weak  ley  for  instance,"  will  cure  this  dis- 
ease in  swine.  He  says  an  extensive  use  of  this  remedy 
for  many  years,  enables  him  to  say  it  is  infallible,  if  it  be 
applied  before  the  animal  has  lost  its  appetite. 

BLIND  STAGGERS. 

A  correspondent  of  the  "  New  Genesee  Farmer"  gives 
the  following  remedy  for  this  disease  in  swine : 

. "  As  to  the  cause  of  this  disease,  I  am  not  able  to  speak 
decidedly  ;  but  suppose  it  to  arise  from  a  determination  of 
blood  to  the  head.  Leaving  the  cause,  therefore,  to  abler 
hands,  I  will  proceed  to  the  cure.  Catch  the  hog,  and 
with  a  sharp  knife,  make  an  incision  through  the  skin, 
two  or  two  and  a  half  inches  in  length,  vertically  on  the 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  219 

forehead,  about  one  and  a  half  inches  below  the  top  of 
the  head,  and  insert  into  the  wound  and  under  the  skin, 
as  much  fine  salt  as  possible.  Repeat  the  application 
hourly,  and  it  will  very  soon  effect  a  cure." 


CARE  OF  BREEDING  SWINE. 

Swine  kept  for  breeders  should  never  be  shifted  from 
pen  to  pen  a  short  time  before  littering.  They  must  not 
be  disturbed  or  kept  in  small  pens.  When  they  are  al- 
lowed to  roam  at  large,  they  generally  seek  retired  places 
in  the  woods,  and  in  such  cases  they  are  seldom  known 
to  destroy  their  young  by  design  or  by  accident.  Let 
them  have  their  accustomed  residence  at  such  times. 

SPAYING  SWINE. 

Take  a  crooked  stick,  in  the  form  of  the  arm  when 
bent,  about  eighteen  inches  long  ;  to  each  end  attach  a 
string,  doubled,  about  eight  or  ten  inches  long,  which  put 
in  a  noose  over  the  hind-legs,  just  above  the  hocks;  hang 
them  up,  head  downward  ;  tie  the  mouth  to  prevent  squeal- 
ing ;  let  a  boy  stand  at  their  back  and  hold  the  fore-legs. 
Then  with  a  sharp  knife  split  the  belly  just  between  the 
hind  four  teats,  sufficient  to  insert  two  or  three  fingers  of 
the  left  hand — draw  out  the  pride,  and  cut  it  off  with  the 
knife  in  the  right  hand  ;  then  with  a  large  crooked  needle 
and  waxed  thread,  sew  up  the  wound  in  the  following 
manner :  Stick  the  needle  through  from  outside  to  inside, 
then  bring  out  the  needle  on  the  other  side  of  the  wound, 
from  inside  to  outside  ;  cut  off  the  thread  sufficiently  long 
to  tie  ;  repeat  the  same  so  as  to  make  three  stitches  ;  then 
tie  them,  being  careful  not  to  draw  the  stitches  too  tight, 
and  the  work  is  done. 


220 

SALT  FOR  HOGS. 

Hogs,  during  the  process  of  fattening,  should  be  sup- 
plied with  salt  as  often  as  once  a  week.  It  is  no  less 
advantageous  to  them  than  the  ox,  the  cow,  or  the  sheep, 
and,  when  liberally  given,  is  a  preventive  of  many  dis- 
eases to  which,  from  their  continual  confinement,  and  the 
effects  of  hearty  food,  they  are  inevitably  exposed.  Some 
hogs,  also,  are  greatly  benefited  by  it,  and  will  partake 
of  it  once  or  twice  as  eagerly,  and  to  all  appearance  with 
as  good  zest,  as  they  do  of  corn  or  meal.  Charcoal  is 
also  highly  salutary  in  its  influences  upon  the  hog. 

BREED  OF  SWINE. 

As  much  depends  on  the  breed  of  swine  as  of  any  do- 
mestic animal,  as  relates  to  the  profit  of  keeping.  The 
old-fashioned,  thin,  long-legged,  long-nosed,  gaunt  bodied 
hogs  are  now,  we  believe,  hardly  tolerated.  We  are  but 
little  acquainted  with  the  different  breeds  of  their  succes- 
sors, and  shall  not,  therefore,  assume  the  responsibility  of 
recommending  any  particular  race.  O.  Fiske.  Esq.,  of 
Worcester,  an  able,  enlightened,  and  patriotic  cultivator, 
says  :  "  My  hogs  are  of  the  Bedford  breed,  so  called  in 
England  ;  and  experience  has  proved  to  my  satisfaction, 
that  this  breed  is  far  the  best  that  has  been  introduced  into 
our  country.  They  are  quiet  in  their  nature,  fat  easy, 
and  with  little  expense  or  trouble.  I  have  had  some 
weigh  at  twelve  months  old,  about  three  hundred  and 
forty  pounds,  and  a  considerable  number  of  eighteen 
months  old,  four  hundred  pounds. 

**  The  marks  of  a  good  hog  are,  a  moderate  length  in 
proportion  to  the  size  of  the  body  ;  the  nose  short ;  the 
cheek  plump  and  full;  neck  thick  and  short;  quarters 
full ;  hair  fine  and  thin  ;  with  a  symmetry  adapted  to  the 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  221 

breed  to  which  it  belongs.  Above  all,  it  is  essential  that 
it  be  of  a  kindly  disposition  to  fatten  early." 

The  sow  should  be  selected  with  great  care,  broad  and 
straight- backed  ;  wide  hips  ;  a  great  many  teats ;  short 
legs,  and  fine  bone.  It  is  said  that  the  sow  will  produce 
the  stronger  and  better  litter  if  not  allowed  to  breed  till  a 
year  old,  and  the  boar  should  not  be  younger  than  that 
age  when  put  to  sows.  Sows  may  be  allowed  to  breed 
till  they  are  six  years  old,  and  boars  till  five  ;  and  both 
be  made  good  pork  after  this  period,  by  methods  which  do 
not  require  description.  One  male,  according  to  "The 
Complete  Grazier,"  should  not  be  permitted  to  have  ac- 
cess to  more  than  ten  females  in  a  year.  Sows  will 
usually  have  pigs  twice  a  year,  and  should  be  put  to  the 
males  at  such  times  as  will  bring  one  litter  in  April  and 
another  early  in  September. 

"  Those  sows  are  accounted  the  best  breeders,"  says 
"  The  Farmer's  Assistant,"  /*  which  have  about  ten  or 
twelve  paps.  They  should  be  kept  clean  and  well  littered  ; 
but  should  not  have  too  much  litter  at  the  time  of  pigging, 
lest  they  overlay  their  pigs  in  it.  At  the  end  of  a  week 
or  ten  days,  they  should  be  let  out  of  their  styes  into  the 
yard  for  three  or  four  hours  each  day.  Where  several 
sows  are  farrowing  about  the  same  time,  they  must  be 
kept  in  separate  apartments  in  the  sty,  lest  they  devour 
the  pigs  of  each  other. 

SOWS  EATING  THEIR  PIGS. 

Young  sows  will  sometimes  eat  their  own  offspring, 
which  may  be  prevented,  by  washing  the  backs  of  the 
pigs  in  an  infusion  of  aloes  ;  and  for  this  purpose,  the 
sows  must  be  watched.  It  is  said  that  supplying  them 
with  plenty  of  water  at  this  time,  will  prevent  any  mis- 
chief  taking  place  of  this  kind. 


222  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

Raw  salt  pork,  cut  in  small  pieces,  and  given,  will 
prevent  them  from  eating  their  pigs.  I  have  seen  it  given 
after  they  had  ate  two  or  three  of  their  litter,  with  good 
success.  But  to  prevent  any  mischief,  it  should  be  kept 
by  them  at  this  time.  A  western  farmer  observes,  "  I 
have  been  careful  for  about  a  week  before  my  sows  were 
about  to  farrow,  to  give  them  some  butcher's  refuse  meat, 
which  does  not  cost  much  ;  if  easy  to  be  procured,  give 
them  a  plenty,  and  I  will  venture  to  say  that  they  will 
not  eat  their  pigs." 


DISEASES    OF     THE    HORSE. 


The  diseases  to  which  this  noble  animal  is  liable,  are 
numerous ;  and  we  cannot  give  as  much  room  to  this  de- 
partment as  the  importance  of  the  subject  requires.  Every 
farmer  would  do  well  "to  procure  a  copy  of  a  book  called 
"  THE  HORSE,"  by  William  Youatt,  republished  from  the 
London  edition,  and  adapted  to  the  American  public,  by 
Lea  &  Blanchard,  of  Philadelphia.  It  is  a  work  of  great 
merit. 

We  annex  a  few  of  the  most  useful  hints  on  this  sub- 
ject. 

CURE  FOR  COLIC  IN  HORSES. 

Dissolve  one  pound  of  epsom  or  glauber  salts,  and 
one-fourth  of  a  pound  of  ground  ginger,  in  three  pints  of 
boiling  water,  and  when  sufficiently  cool,  (about  blood 
warm,)  pour  it  down  the  horse.  Keep  it  well  shaken, 
so  that  the  horse  may  get  all  the  sediment,  which  contains 
most  of  the  ginger.  Tn  very  severe  attacks,  bleed  in  the 


223 

mouth,  which  I  think  expedites  the  cure,  if  done  before 
giving  the  ginger  and  salts.  This  medicine  not  only 
cures  the  colic,  but  regulates  the  stomach ;  so  that  there 
is  no  tendency  to  colic,  any  more  than  if  the  horse  had 
never  had  it.  Colic  in  horses  is  generally  brought  on 
by  long  feeding  on  corn,  or  a  change  of  feed,  and  over 
feeding  and  hard  driving  immediately  after,  and  perhaps 
too  much  water,  which  causes  an  unnatural  distension  of 
the  stomach  ;  then  inflammation,  which  is  shown  in  colic, 
founder,  etc.  Colic  is  not  as  common  as  many  imagine. 
Horses  are  frequently  driven  so  long  without  being  per- 
mitted to  stop,  that  the  great  amount  of  water  secreted  in 
the  bladder  causes  excessive  pain,  and  is  frequently  dis- 
charged with  great  difficulty,  and  sometimes  cannot  be 
discharged  at  all.  We  relieved  a  mare,  a  short  time 
since,  from  all  the  symptoms  of  a  severe  colic,  by  ex- 
citing a  desire  to  void  the  water,  by  pouring  water  slowly 
on  the  ground  near  her. 

BOTS. 

In  the  "  Southwestern  Farmer"  is  given  the  following 
mode  of  treatment  for  bots,  which  is  there  pronounced  a 
sure  remedy,  if  used  before  the  stomach  of  the  horse  is  eaten 
through  and  ruined.  Give  one  quart  of  warm  sage  tea; 
half  an  hour  after,  give  another  quart ;  half  an  hour  after, 
give  one  gill  of  tar;  and  half  an  hour  after,  give  a  pur- 
gative. The  sage  being  an  astringent,  will  cause  the 
bots  to  let  go  of  the  stomach,  and  the  tar  kills  them.  Pre- 
vention is  better  than  cure ;  but  if  cure  is  needed,  it  is 
hoped  this  may  be  effectual.  It  has  been  so  in  some 
cases. 

FOUNDER. 
As  soon  as  you  find  your  horse  is  foundered,  bieed  him 


224  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

in  the  neck  in  proportion  to  the  greatness  of  the  founder. 
Then  draw  his  head  up,  as  common  in  drenching,  and 
with  a  spoon  put  far  back  on  his  tongue  strong  salt,  until 
you  get  him  to  swallow  one  pint.  Be  careful  not  to  let 
him  drink  too  much.  Then  anoint  round  the  edges  of  his 
hoofs  with  spirits  of  turpentine. 

A  founder  pervades  every  part  of  the  system  of  a  horse. 
The  phlegms  arrest  it  from  the  blood  ;  the  salt  arrests  it 
from  the  stomach  and  bowels ;  and  the  spirits  arrest  it 
from  the  feet  and  limbs. 

YELLOW  WATER. 

SYMPTOMS. — A  breaking  out  on  the  skin,  the  sores  run- 
ning together,  and  forming  large  scabs  of  matted  hair  the 
size  of  the  hand  ;  drooping  ;  swelling  and  stiffness  of  the 
legs ;  emaciation  ;  enormous  appetite  ;  reeling  and  stag- 
gering in  walking ;  great  reluctance  in  moving  about,  etc. 

TREATMENT. — A  gill  of  spirits  of  turpentine,  and  a  gill 
of  spirits  of  camphor,  shook  together  in  a  pint  of  warm 
water,  every  morning  for  a  week. 

SWELLINGS. 

To  scatter  swellings  on  horses  or  other  cattle,  take  two 
quarts  of  proof  whiskey,  or  other  proof  spirits,  warm  it. 
over  coal,  but  not  to  blaze ;  dissolve  it  in  a  pint  of  soft 
soap.  When  cool,  put  it  in  a  bottle,  and  add  one  ounce 
of  camphor.  When  dissolved,  it  will  form  a  liquid  opo- 
deldoc, and  is  then  ready  for  application,  forming  a  cheap 
and  useful  remedy. 

When  the  swelling  is  on  the  leg,  or  any  part  that  will 
receive  a  bandage,  such  bandage  should  be  applied,  and 
wet  with  the  opodeldoc. 

STIFLE. 
The  following  recipe  for  curing  this  disease,  is  given 


THE  EMIGRANT  S  HAND-BOOK.          225 

by  a  correspondent  of  the  "  Cultivator."  He  says  he  has 
sold  the  recipe  for  many  dollars,  and  with  it  cured  many 
horses : 

"  A  handful  of  sumach  bark  and  a  handful  of  white-oak 
bark,  boiled  in  a  gallon  of  water,  down  to  two  quarts  ; 
bathe  the  stifle  with  this  lotion  twice  a  day  for  three  days ; 
then  put  on  a  salve  made  of  the  white  of  an  egg  and  rosin, 
and  bathe  the  same  in  with  a  hot  shovel  two  or  three 
times,  and  the  horse  is  cured." 

CURE  FOR  SPRAINS. 

Take  one  part  spirits  of  hartshorn,  two  parts  neatsfoot 
oil,  and  one  part  of  spirits  of  turpentine.  Mix  the  harts- 
horn aid  oil,  and  then  add  the  turpentine. 

SWINEY. 
Bathe  the  part  affected  with  saltpetre  and  water. 

RINGBONE. 

TREATMENT. — Take  gum  camphor,  one  ounce  ;  spirits 
sal.  ammonia,  two  ounces ;  mix  these  together  in  a  junk 
bottle ;  let  it  stand  twenty-four  hours,  occasionally  sha- 
king it  together.  Then  add  oil  of  spike  and  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine, of  each  one  ounce.  Then  shake  all  well  together, 
and  it  is  fit  for  use.  Apply  this  six  successive  mornings 
by  thoroughly  rubbing  it  on  the  part,  and  apply  a  hot 
shovel  to  cause  the  same  to  penetrate  more  freely,  and  a 
cure  will  generally  be  effected. 

BLACK  TONGUE. 

A  handful  of  fine  salt,  rubbed  upon  the  tongue  of  a 
horse  that  has  the  black-tongue,  will  cure  it  in,  at  the 
most,  two  applications. 

10* 


226 

REMEDY  FOR  FILM  IN  THE  EYE  OF  A  BEAST. 

A  correspondent  of  the  "  Yankee  Farmer,"  suggests  what 
he  considers  a  new  remedy  for  a  film,  produced  by  a 
blow,  or  other  accidental  causes  of  similar  nature,  viz : 
spitting  tobacco  juice  into  the  eye  of  the  animal.  He 
remarks  that  he  has  seen  it  tried  only  twice,  arid  each 
time  with  entire  success  ;  and  with  very  sensible  caution 
concludes,  by  saying,  "  the  remedy  requires  to  be  more 
fully  established."  We  can  assure  our  cautious  friend, 
that  the  remedy  has  been  fully  established  down  South 
for  years.  The  memories  of  our  oldest  tobacco-chewers, 
reach  not  the  antiquity  of  its  discovery.  We  have  often 
seen  tobacco  juice  spit  in  a  horse's  eye  when  weeping  or 
looking  weak,  and  entire  relief  afforded. 

THE  POLL  EVIL. 

The  poll-evil  is  generally  the  result  of  a  bruise  on  the 
top  of  the  horse's  head,  which  produces  a  mass  of  corrupt 
flesh,  that  keeps  continually  increasing  for  months.  For 
a  number  of  months  we  have  known  horses  to  be  afflicted 
with  it  before  dying.  They  lose  their  appetite,  become 
excessively  weak,  and  pine  away,  and  die  under  its  af- 
fliction. 

TREATMENT. — Cut  open  the  pipe  always  found  in  the 
sore,  and  put  in  a  piece  of  saleratus.  Two  or  three  ap- 
plications will  cure. 

The  "  Southern  Planter"  says,  that  an  old  gentleman  ot 
the  highest  respectability,  called  at  the  office  a  few  days 
since,  to  say  that  he  had  an  unfailing  remedy  in  the  little 
evergreen,  commonly  called  the  ground  ivy.  The  leaf 
is  gathered  and  dried  before  the  fire  until  it  can  be  pound- 
ed, when  a  table-spoonful  is  mixed  with  an  equal  quantity 
of  slacked  lime,  and  the  swelling  having  been  laid  open 
to  the  bone,  the  mixture  is  laid  on  the  wound  and  kept  in 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  227 

its  place  by  a  bandage.  Mr.  Terrill  says  he  has  used  it 
himself,  and  that  he  has  known  it  frequently  used  by 
others,  and  that  in  no  instance  has  the  first  application 
failed  to  effect  a  cure. 


SCRATCHES. 

Wash  the  legs  with  warm  strong  soap  suds,  and  then 
with  beef  brine.  Two  applications  will  cure  the  worst 
case. 

ERRORS  IN  THE  TREATMENT  OF  HORSES. 

When  a  horse  shyes,  or  shears,  at  some  unaccustomed 
object,  and  which  all  young  horses  will  do,  never  speak 
sharply,  or  worse  than  that,  strike  him,  if  you  would  avoid 
his  starting  the  next  time  he  sees  the  same  or  any  similar 
object.  Almost  any  horse  may  be  brought  to  a  confirmed 
habit  of  shying  by  such  treatment.  What  should  be  done, 
then  ?  Check  him  to  a  walk  ;  give  him  time  to  see  the 
object,  and  he  will  soon  take  little  or  no  notice  of  it. 

If  a  horse  stumbles  or  trips,  it  is  a  common  practice  to 
strike  him  for  that.  This  will  not  mend  his  habits  of  trip, 
ping  and  stumbling,  but  will  add  to  them,  if  he  has  spirit, 
that  of  springing  forward  with  dangerous  quickness  when- 
ever it  occurs;  as  he  will  expect  the  lash  to  follow,  as  a 
matter  of  course.  The  remedy,  if  it  can  be  called  one,  is 
to  keep  an  eye  upon  the  road,  and  where  from  stones  or 
unevenness  the  falling  is  apprehended,  tighten  the  reins 
and  enliven  the  horse,  but  never  strike  him  after  the  ac- 
cident. 

As  you  would  save  the  strength  and  wind  of  your  horse, 
drive  slow  up  hill,  and  as  you  would  save  his  limbs,  and 
your  own,  drive  slowly  down  hill. 

Never  wash  off  your  horse  with  cold  water  when  he  is 


228  THE  FARMER'S  ANO 

hot,  or  let  him  drink  it  freely  in  that  state.  If  the  wafef 
is  quite  warm,  it  will  not  hurt  him. 

Do  not  permit  the  smith,  when  he  shoes  your  horse,  to 
out  out  any  portion  of  the  soft  part,  or  what  is  called  the 
frog  of  the  foot— this  is  apt  to  gradually  draw  in  the  quar- 
ters of  the  hoof  and  cripple  the  animal — and  is  recom- 
mended only  hy  the  smooth  appearance  which  it  gives  to 
the  bottom  of  the  foot,  which  is  more  apt  to  catch  a  round 
stone  in  the  shoe  than  otherwise. 

Do  not  feed  with  grain,  especially  corn,  when  a  horse 
is  warm,  or  very  much  fatigued  ;  if  you  do,  you  may 
founder  and  ruin  him. 

If  you  want  your  horse  to  last,  and  your  carriage  also, 
drive  slowly. 

Do  not  keep  a  horse  too  fat,  or  too  lean,  as  either  dis- 
qualify him  for  hard  labor. 

The  more  kindness  and  good  temper  is  extended  to  a 
horse,  the  better  will  he  behave  in  return.  Bad  temper 
and  bad  habits  come  gradually  from  bad  usage. 

DOCKING  HORSES. 

A  handsome  flowing  mane  and  tail  constitute  the  most 
graceful  and  useful  appendages  to  this  noble  animal,  and 
are  essential  both  to  his  strength  and  comfort.  None  but 
a  narrow-minded,  ignorant  man,  would  have  in  the  first 
place  ventured  on  such  a  violation  of  vested  rights  ;  and 
none  but  blockheads  or  jockeys,  destitute  of  the  better  hu- 
man feelings,  could  have  perpetrated  or  tolerated  the  in- 
novation. 

It  is  impossible  that  a  docked  horse  should  be  as  vigor- 
ous and  strong  as  he  would  have  been,  had  this  operation 
never  been  performed.  A  division  of  the  strong  tendons 
and  muscles  that  have  their  termination  in  the  tail,  must 
of  necessity  inflict  an  irreparable  injury.  A  few  years 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  229 

since,  an  English  gentleman  had  a  fine  hunting  horse, 
that  would  carry  his  rider  over  a  five-barred  gate  with 
ease  ;  but  the  tail  was  not  in  fashion,  it  was  not  carried 
to  suit  him,  and  he  had  him  nicked ;  the  result  was,  that 
when  he  got  well,  he  could  scarcely  carry  him  over  two 
bars.  "  Thus,"  said  he  "  I  spoiled  a  good  horse,  and  no 
wonder  ;  for  the  operation  weakened  his  loins,  a  result 
that  might  have  been  reasonably  expected  from  the  sever- 
ing of  two  such  muscles." 

Race  horses,  we  believe,  are  never  docked  or  nicked. 
Their  muscular  powers  are  all  wanted,  and  that  too,  where 
nature  has  placed  them.  The  hair  of  the  tails  is  cropped, 
as  any  one  may  see  in  the  fine  prints  that  accompany  the 
English  sporting  journals ;  but  the  man  who  should  un- 
dertake by  the  use  of  the  knife,  and  the  division  of  tendons, 
to  improve  nature,  would  justly  be  considered  insane.  The 
same  argument  that  prevents  the  mutilation  of  the  race 
horse,  should  prevent  that  of  the  carriage  or  farm  horse. 
The  trifling  inconvenience  the  tail  occasions  when  in  the 
harness,  should  be  tolerated  for  the  sake  of  the  greater 
beauty  of  the  animal. 

PURGING    HORSES. 

C.  W.  Gooch,  of  Virginia,  writing  to  the  editor  of  the 
Southern  Planter,  says  :  "  The  ordinary  means  of  pur- 
ging a  sick  horse  are  so  slow  in  operating,  that,  in  many 
cases,  they  do  no  good.  I  send  you  a  very  simple  recipe, 
with  which  some  of  your  readers  may  not  be  acquainted, 
which  I  have  never  known  to  fail,  and  regard  as  the  best 
and  simplest.  I  saw  it  many  years  ago  in  the  American 
Farmer,  and  have  tested  it : 

4i  Take  a  piece  of  chalk  about  the  size  of  a  walnut, 
pound  it  in  a  mortar,  or  wrap  a  rag  around  it  and  reduce 
it  to  powder  with  a  hammer,  or  anything  else  ;  put  the 


230  THE 

powder  into  a  quart  bottle  ;  pour  common  vinegar  into 
the  bottle,  until  the  effervescence  prevents  your  pouring 
in  more,  and  (having  the  horse  ready,)  drench  him  with 
it.  But  little  vinegar  can  be  got  into  the  bottle  the  first 
time,  so  that  you  will  have  to  pour  more  into  it  and  drench 
a  second  time.  Ordinarily,  a  pint  will  do.  If  it  does  not 
operate  in  five  or  ten  minutes,  persevere  in  the  dose,  and 
in  a  very  short  time  the  animal  will  be  well  again." 


MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT 


COMPRISING 


DISEASES,  ACCIDENTS,  NURSING, 


MEDICINES. 


VARIOUS  HINTS  AS  TO  THE  PRESERVATION  OF  HEALTH. 


ETC.   ETC.   ETC. 


CHAPTER    VII. 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


FLUIDS. 

One  gallon  measure  contains 8  pints. 

One  pint 16  ounces. 

One  ounce 8  drachma 

One  drachm , 60  minims. 

DBY   ST7BSTAWC1S. 

One  pound  contains 12  ounces. 

One  ounce , 8  drachms. 

One  drachm 60  grains. 

One  scruple 20  grains. 

SCALE   OF   MEDICAL   DOSES. 

If  a  grown  person,  may  take —  one  drachm. 

A  person  from  seven  to  fourteen half  a  drachm. 

From  four  to  seven one-third  of  a  drachm. 

Four  years one-fourth  of  a  drachm. 

Generally  speaking,  twenty  grains  of  powder  fill  a  tea-spoon.  B* 
careful,  however,  on  this  point. 

THE  suggestions  in  this  department  of  our  work,  are  in 
no  way  designed  to  take  the  place  of  the  medical  man. 
Should  any  of  our  readers  have  occasion  for  medical  help, 
let  them  at  once  employ  a  judicious  and  careful  physician. 
No  one  gains  anything  by  doctoring  himself,  if  it  be  pos- 
sible to  procure  the  services  of  a  regular  practitioner.  But 
it  very  often  happens  to  the  resident  of  a  new  country, 
that  he  must  be  his  own  doctor ;  and  it  seems  to  us  to  be 


234  THE   FARMER'S   AND 

necessary  to  give  a  few  pages  of  plain,  practical  advice, 
on  the  more  common  diseases  to  which  he  may  be  liable 
We  will  begin  with 

FEVERS. 

INTERMITTENT,  OR  FEVER  AND  AGUE. 

SYMPTOMS. — These  are  well  known,  and  need  not  be 
described. 

TREATMENT. — The  bowels  should  be  cleansed  in  the 
first  place.  An  emetic  is  perhaps  the  readiest  mode  of 
doing  it.  The  following  are  each  good. 

EMETIC. 

Ipecacuanha,  four  ounces. 
Lobelia,  four  ounces. 
Blood-root,  two  ounces. 

Pulverized ;  and  a  tea-spoonful  given  in  warm  tea, 
every  half  hour  till  it  operates. 

ANOTHER. 

Ipecacuanha,  fifteen  or  twenty  grains. 
Dissolve  in  warm  water  ;  give  a  table -spoonful  every 
ten  minutes  till  it  operates. 

ANOTHER. 

Tartar  emetic ;  five  or  six  grains. 

Dissolve  in  six  table-spoonfuls  of  warm  water.  Take 
a  table-spoonful  every  ten  minutes  till  it  operates. 

Give  warm  boneset  tea,  or  warm  water  to  hasten  the 
operation. 

If  the  patient  object  to  an  emetic,  give  a  purge.     Calo- 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  235 

mel  and  jalap,  ten  grains  of  each,  are  good,  followed  by 
a  mild  dose  of  castor  oil  or  salts.  As  soon  as  the  fever 
goes  off,  and  the  skin  gets  to  be  a  little  moist,  take  two 
grains  of  quinine  every  two  hours,  until  you  have  taken 
five  doses. 

It  would  be  well  to  mix  with  the  first  dose  or  two  of 
quinine,  a  tea-spoonful  of  salts,  with  warm  water. 

This  treatment  will  generally  cure  a  mild  case  of  this 
disease. 

Tn  more  severe  cases,  it  may  be  necessary  to  continue 
the  use  of  quinine ;  when  the  fever  is  off,  taking  care  to 
keep  the  stomach  clean  and  the  bowels  open. 

There  is  a  most  admirable  medicine  sold  in  most  of  the 
Western  cities,  which  we  can  conscientiously  recommend 
for  fever  and  ague,  and  other  bilious  diseases.  It  is  the 
"  Indian  Cholagogue"  which  is  made  by  Dr.  Osgood,  of 
New- York,  who  has  made  the  bilious  disorders  of  the 
West  his  special  study.  We  are  no  friend  to  those  medi- 
cines usually  called  "patent;"  but  we  have  had  ample 
opportunity  of  knowing  the  invaluable  effects  of  the  Cho- 
lagogue  in  bilious  cases. 

SIMPLE  FEVER. 

SYMPTOMS. — Sudden  chills  and  heats  ;  dry  skin ;  eyes 
red  and  uneasy  ;  tongue  white  ;  urine  high  colored,  etc. 

TREATMENT. — Bleed  freely.  If  the  head  is  hot  and 
painful,  apply  cloths  dipped  in  vinegar  and  water,  or  iced 
water.  Give  a  smart  purge  of  calomel  and  jalap,  ten 
grains  of  each  to  a  strong  adult,  less  in  proportion  if  the 
patient  be  weak.  If  the  body  be  very  hot,  sponge  it  all 
over  \vith  vinegar  and  water.  After  the  bowels  are 
emptied,  give  five  or  six  grains  of  Dover's  powder.  Keep 
the  patient  cool  and  quiet,  and  give  cooling  drinks,  to 
make  which  see  Nurse's  Department. 


236  THE   FARMER  S   AND 

BILIOUS  FEVER. 

SYMPTOMS. — Low  spirits  ;  yearning  ;  uneasiness  ;  de- 
praved appetite  ;  bad  dreams  ;  alternate  chill-s  and  heats  ; 
pulse  full ;  bowels  costive  ;  skin  yellowish  and  harsh ; 
the  tongue  is  first  white,  and  then  brown  and  furred  ;  pain 
in  the  head,  back  and  legs  ;  the  urine  high  colored. 

TREATMENT. — Bleed  freely  if  the  fever  is  high.  Give 
an  emetic,  (see  page  234.)  When  this  has  operated 
freely,  give  a  dose  of  calomel  and  jalap,  from  ten  to  fif- 
teen grains  of  calomel  to  an  adult. 

If  the  heat  continue  very  great,  sponge  the  body  with 
cold  water  and  vinegar.  The  bowels  must  be  kept  loose 
during  the  whole  of  the  disease. 

It  is  very  important  to  get  the  skin  in  a  moist  state.  To 
bring  this  about,  ipecacuanha,  in  doses  of  one  or  two  grains, 
may  be  given  ;  or,  tartar  emetic,  made  very  weak  in 
water,  given  in  small  quantities  at  short  intervals. 

If  all  these  things  do  not  cure,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
salivate  the  patient.  To  do  this,  give  one  or  two  grains 
of  calomel  in  syrup,  every  two  hours,  till  a  slight  sore- 
ness, or  copper  taste,  is  felt  in  the  mouth. 

Salivation  is  a  last  resort,  however,  and  should  hardly 
be  undertaken  without  the  advice  of  a  medical  man. 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  BRAIN. 

SYMPTOMS. — Great  pain  in  the  head ;  high  fever  ;  pulse 
high ;  eyes  red,  and  unable  to  bear  the  light ;  restless, 
unquiet  sleep  ;  sometimes  delirium  ;  tongue  red,  changing 
to  a  dark- brown  or  yellow  ;  sometimes  the  feet  are  cold  ; 
breathing  sometimes  difficult. 

TREATMENT. — Bleed  freely ;  bathe  the  feet  in  warm 
water,  with  a  little  pearlash  or  common  ashes  in  it ;  apply 
cloths  dipped  in  vinegar  and  water  to  the  head  frequent* 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.        .          23? 

ly  ;  a  mustard  poultice  to  the  back  of  the  neck  is  useful 
in  bad  cases.  Purge  freely  with  epsom  salts.  Keep  the 
patient  in  a  dark  room,  cool  and  quiet  as  possible.  If 
this  does  not  answer,  the  patient  should  be  blistered,  either 
on  the  head  or  between  the  shoulders.  If  the  former,  the 
head  should  be  shaved.  Mustard  may  be  applied  to  the 
feet  every  night. 

COMMON  HEADACHE. 

A  foul  stomach  is  generally  the  cause  of  this  ;  and  may 
be  relieved  by  an  emetic,  followed  by  a  moderate  dose  of 
calomel  and  jalap,  and  lighter  diet  for'a  few  days. 

BLEEDING  AT  THE  NOSE. 

Apply  cold  water  or  ice  to  the  back  of  the  neck,  the 
head,  and  face.  Put  the  feet  in  warm  water,  and  give 
some  warm  herb  tea  to  cause  perspiration.  Snuff  up  a 
little  fine  dry  salt,  if  the  above  does  not  cure. 

SCARLET  FEVER. 

This  disease  prevails  much  in  many  portions  of  the 
United  States,  and  should  be  guarded  against. 

SYMPTOMS. — Cold  chills,  succeeded  by  heat  and  thirst ; 
headache  ;  pulse  quicker  than  usual ;  breathing  quick  and 
unnatural.  In  two  days,  or  thereabouts,  a  prickling  sen- 
sation is  felt,  and  the  skin  is  covered  with  a  red  eruption, 
which  shortly  runs  together.  This  will  usually  be  seen 
first  upon. the  face,  breast  and  arms.  In  a  few  days,  if 
the  patient  does  well,  the  eruption  disappears. 

The  scarlet  fever  and  measles  have  many  symptoms 
alike.  The  eruption  in  the  measles  is  in  distinct  spots, 
and  is  two  days  later  in  its  appearance  than  in  scarlet 
fever. 

TREATMENT. — Give  an  emetic  as  soon  as  possible  ;  then 


239  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

give  a  dose  of  salts.  Sponge  the  body  with  tepid  water. 
Give  cooling  chinks,  and  keep  the  patient  quiet.  Give 
catnip  tea  frequently,  and  bathe  the  feet. 

If  the  throat  is  sore,  gargle  with  a  little  alum  water,  or 
sage  and  honey.  A  gargle  made  of  cayenne  pepper  is  one 
of  the  very  best  applications.  Do  not  fail  to  try  it.  Mus- 
tard plasters  may  be  applied  to  tha  feet. 

Sometimes  the  disease  runs  into  a  malignant  form.  It 
is  difficult  to  give  instructions  as  to  the  course  best  to  pur- 
sue under  these  circumstances;  a  physician  should  be 
got,  if  practicable.  The  following  is  recommended,  on 
very  high  authority,  in  advanced  stages  of  the  putrid  sore 
throat,  which  accompanies  the  malignant  form  of  the  dis- 
ease. If  you  cannot  get  a  physician,  try  it  by  all  means. 

Two  table-spoonsful  of  cayenne  (or  red)  pepper. 

One  tea-spoonful  of  salt. 

Half  a  pint  of  vinegar. 

Half  a  pint  of  boiling  water. 

When  cool,  strain  it,  and  give  two  table-spoonsful 
every  half  hour.  We  have  great  confidence  in  this 
remedy.  If  there  be  difficulty  in  passing  the  water,  give 
a  few  drops  of  spirits  of  nitre  occasionally,  or  spearmint 
tea. 

MEASLES. 

This  disease  is  usually  known  to  mothers,  but  we  will 
give  a  few  of  the 

SYMPTOMS. — Dullness  and  sleepiness  ;  dry  cough  ; 
eyes  red  ;  great  thirst,  and  afterward  a  severe  cold.  On 
the  fourth  day  small  red  spots  appear  on  the  face,  and 
then  on  other  parts  of  the  body  ;  the  face  liable  to  be 
swollen  ;  the  tongue  furred  and  of  a  whitish  color. 

TREATMENT. — Give  a  dose  or  two  of  castor  oil  or  salts  ; 
in  a  few  hours  give  a  gentle  emetic.  Bathe  the  feet  in 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  239 

warm  water  with  ashes  in  it.  After  the  bowels  have  been 
opened  and  the  emetic  taken,  give  saffron,  and  Virginia 
snake-root,  made  into  a  weak  tea  ;  two  parts  of  the  former 
and  one  of  the  latter.  Keep  the  bowels  open ;  and  keep  the 
patient  cool  and  quiet,  with  low  diet. 

WORMS. 

SYMPTOMS. — Paleness  ;  bad  breath  ;  itching  at  the  nose ; 
constant  hunger  ;  slow  fever ;  wasting  away  of  the  flesh  ; 
cheeks  flushed  at  times,  etc. 

TREATMENT. — Take 

Carolina  pink-root,  half  an  ounce. 

Senna,  half  an  ounce. 

Manna,  half  an  ounce. 

Boiling  water,  one  pint ;  sweeten,  and  add  a  little  milk ; 
give  a  gill  three  times  a  day. 

Powdered  charcoal,  in  new  milk,  is  considered  a  cure 
in  simple  cases. 

Another  mode  of  treatment  is  as  follows :  Give  three 
or  four  grains  of  calomel ;  the  next  day,  give  the  same 
quantity  of  powdered  aloes.  Continue  this  treatment  for 
a  week. 

SUMMER  COMPLAINT  IN  CHILDREN  ;    OR  LOOSENESS 
OF  THE  BOWELS. 

TREATMENT.— 
Rhubarb,          \ 

Saleratus,         (  equal  parts,  say,  twenty  grains. 
Spearmint,        } 

Mix  in  half  a  pint  of  warm  water,  sweeten,  and  give  a 
table-spoonful  every  two  hours  till  the  disease  abates. 
Powdered  charcoal  and  magnesia  is  good. 


240  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

DIARRHEA  IN  ADULTS. 

TREATMENT. — Give  an  emetic ;  then  a  dose  of  castor 
oil,  with  forty  drops  of  laudanum  in  it.  See  that  the 
bowels  are  kept  open  by  castor  oil  every  day  if  necessary. 
If  this  does  not  restore  the  bowels  to  a  healthy  state,  give 
the  following  : 

Powdered  rhubarb,  ten  grains 

Do.  chalk,  one  scruple. 

Do.  opium,  one  scruple. 

Divide  into  four  powders,  and  take  one  night  and 
morning. 

Blackberry  syrup  is  a  most  excellent  medicine  in  this 
complaint,  and  may  be  had  when  other  remedies  cannot. 
It  is  made  thus  : 

The  bark  of  the  root,  two  pounds ;  boil  it  four  hours, 
and  simmer  down  to  two  quarts  ;  then  add  three  or  four 
pounds  of  loaf-sugar  and  half  a  pint  of  brandy.  A  table- 
spoonful  morning,  noon,  and  night. 

MUMPS. 

SYMPTOMS. — A  lump  on  the  throat,  immediately  under 
the  jaws,  sometimes  on  one  side,  sometimes  on  both  ;  at- 
tended with  more  or  less  fever;  the  cheeks  and  face  usu- 
ally swell. 

TREATMENT. — If  the  bowels  are  confined,  open  them  by 
castor  oil,  salts,  or  any  mild  purge  ;  drink  freely  of  warm 
catnip,  or  balm  tea  ;  avoid  the  possibility  of  taking  cold  ; 
on  this  point  you  cannot  be  too  particular.  If  there  should 
be  a  swelling  in  the  breast,  or  in  any  other  place,  apply 
poultices  of  cold  bread  and  milk.  Try  to  get  up  a  gentle 
sweat.  Let  the  diet  be  low,  and  drink  cooling  beverages. 
Bathing  the  feet  is  useful. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  '241 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  BOWELS. 

SYMPTOMS. — Sharp  pain  in  the  bowels,  especially  near 
the  navel  ;  belly  exceedingly  sore,  tight  and  drumlike  ; 
frequently  there  is  vomiting  of  a  dark,  bilious  matter ; 
the  urine  high-colored  ;  pulse  small  and  quick  ;  low  spir- 
its ;  belching  up  wind,  etc.,  etc. 

TREATMENT. — Bleed  freely ;  bathe  the  feet  and  belly 
in  weak  warm  ley  of  ashes ;  give  a  table-spoonful  of 
sweet  oil  every  two  hours.  Should  the  bowels  not  move 
freely,  give  an  injection  of  equal  pails  of  new  milk  and 
mucilage  of  slippery-elm,  adding  thereto  a  gill  or  two  of 
molasses  and  sweet  oil,  and  thirty  drops  of  laudanum. 

When  the  disease  abates,  give  a  clyster  of  fifty  drops  of 
laudanum  in  flaxseed  or  slippery-elm  tea,  morning  and 
night.  Keep  the  patient  cool  and  quiet,  on  a  low  diet. 

PLEURISY. 

SYMPTOMS. — For  a  few  hours  preceding  the  attack, 
usual  symptoms  of  simple  fever  are  felt,  such  as  chilli- 
ness, uneasiness,  flushes  of  heat,  thirst,  and  the  like.  A 
smart,  sharp  pain,  like  pricking,  is  felt  in  the  side,  par- 
ticularly when  drawing  in  the  breath.  There  is  a  diffi- 
culty in  lying  on  the  sore  side.  Sometimes  there  is  a  bad 
cough,  and  tough  phlegm  raised.  The  pulse  is  very 
strong  and  wiry. 

TREATMENT. — Bleed  freely.  Apply  a  blister  to  the  af- 
fected side.  Bathe  the  feet  in  hot  water  mixed  with  ashes. 
Next,  give  a  large  dose  of  salts.  If  the  bowels  are  con- 
fined at  any  time  during  the  disease,  give  a  clyster  of 
starch  in  warm  water ;  or  slippery-elm  tea,  or  any  com- 
mon  clyster.  It  is  all  important  to  have  the  patient  sweat. 
If  this  is  not  brought  about  by  the  above  course,  give  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  sweet  spirits  of  nitre  and^antimonial  wine  every 

two  hours. 

11 


242 

The  patient  must  be  kept  an  the  lowest  diet  possible, 
This  is  a  dangerous  disease,  and  the  assistance  of  a  medi- 
cal man  should  be  speedily  called. 

COLIC. 

The  common  wind  colic  may  usually  be  relieved  by  a 
free  use  of  mint  tea,  or  any  warming  herb  drink.  Rub. 
bing  the  belly  with  hot  flannels  will  do  good.  After  the 
pain  has  gone  take  a  brisk  purge. 

BILIOUS  COLIC. 

Is  not  so  easily  cured.     The  following  are  its 

SYMPTOMS. — Vomiting  a  yellowish  matter  ;  pain  near 
the  navel ;  great  pain  all  over  the  belly  ;  feverish  symp- 
toms ;  thirst ;  oostiveness. 

TREATMENT. — The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  quiet  the 
vomiting  ;  for  this  purpose  laudanum  and  saleratus,  a  tea- 
spoonful  each,  may  be  given  in  half  a  pint  of  warm  tea 
— a  table-spoonful  every  half  hour.  A  strong  purge,  say 
calomel  and  jalap,  should  be  given  as  soon  as  the  stomach 
is  quiet.  If  this- does  not  operate,  resort  must  be  had  to 
clysters,  made  of  common  gruel  or  flaxseed  tea,  with  a 
tea-spoonful  of  laudanum  added. 

During  the  severe  stages  of  the  disease,  the  stomach 
and  bowels  should  be  bathed  in  warm  vinegar  and  water, 
with  an  infusion  of  hops,  if  they  can  be  got.  Drink  free- 
ly of  mint  tea.  This  is  a  dangerous  disease,  and  a  medi- 
cal man  should  be  sent  for  if  possible. 

JAUNDICE. 

SYMPTOMS. — The  whites  of  the  eyes  become  yellow, 
and  so  does  the  skin.  The  urine  is  yellow  and  stains  a 
white  cloth.  The  skin  is  dry,  and  the  appetite  fails. 
The  disease  is  too  well  known,  to  need  further  description. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  243 

TREATMENT. — Give  an  emetic.  Pills  made  of  castile 
soap,  two  in  the  morning  and  two  at  night  for  some  time, 
are  a  good  medicine.  Drink  freely  of  a  decoction  of 
dandelion  root,  and  barberry  root  bark.  Soot  tea  is  good. 

CROUP. 

SYMPTOMS. — The  first  sign  is  difficulty  of  breathing 
when  asleep,  with  cough.  This  increases  violently,  un- 
til the  child  is  almost  convulsed.  The  face  becomes 
flushed,  and  a  peculiar  sound  is  noticed  when  the  child 
coughs. 

TREATMENT. —  Whatever  is  done  must  be  done  instantly. 
If  taken  in  season  the  disease  is  perfectly  curable.  The 
very  first  thing  is  to  give  an  emetic.  On  this  the  whole 
cure  depends.  See  that  the  child  is  made  to  vomit  thorough- 
ly. Antimonial  wine,  tartar  emetic,  or  hive  syrup  will  be 
good  to  produce  this, 

As  soon  as  the  child  is  relieved  of  the  above  symptoms, 
danger  is  at  end  ;  but  the  bowels  should  be  made  to  move 
freely,  and  great  care  taken  of  the  patient. 

WHOOPING  COUGH. 

SYMPTOMS. — It  appears  at  first  like  a  common  cold, 
which  increases,  attended  with  thirst,  hoarseness,  and 
quickened  pulse.  In  a  few  days  that  singular  sound  call- 
ed "  whooping"  is  heard,  when  the  child  draws  a  long 
breath.  Immediately  following  the  whoop,  the  child 
coughs. 

TREATMENT. — Give  an  emetic  at  once.  Keep  the  bow. 
els  open  during  the  disease  by  castor  oil,  salts,  or  other 
simple  medicines.  Bathe  the  feet  every  night  in  hot 
water.  It  may  be  necessary  to  repeat  the  emetic,  occa- 
sionally, if  the  cough  continues  severe.  A  little  pare- 
goric may  be  given  at  night  to  allay  the  cough. 


244 

CRAMP  IN  THE  STOMACH. 

TREATMENT. — Rub  the  stomach  with  flannel  till  it 
smarts.  Take  half  a  tea-spoonful  of  red  pepper  in  warm 
water.  Drink  freely  of  herb  tea,  mint,  etc.  Bathe  the 
feet  in  hot  water,  and  apply  heated  bricks,  or  bottles  of 
hot  water  to  the  stomach. 

SALT   RHEUM. 

TREATMENT. — Make  an  ointment  of  narrow  dock  roots, 
scabious  and  sassafras,  equal  parts.  Boil  these  down 
strong,  and  add  a  pound  of  lard.  Apply  the  ointment 
three  times  a  day.  Purify  the  blood  with  drink  made  of 
roots.  BRISTOL'S  SARSAPARILLA  is  a  capital  medicine. 

ITCH. 

TREATMENT. — Flour  of  sulphur,  two  parts  ;  cream  of  tar- 
tar,  one  part ;  mix  in  molasses,  and  give  an  adult  a  tea- 
spoonful  night  and  morning.  Children  half  the  quantity. 
Take  sulphur,  half  an  ounce  ;  lard,  two  ounces  ;  mix  them 
thoroughly  together,  and  rub  it  over  the  body  twice  a  day. 

RING  WORM. 

TREATMENT. — Tar,  one  ounce  ;  mutton  tallow,  one 
ounce  ;  ground  pepper,  half  an  ounce. 

Simmer  these  together,  and  when  nearly  cold,  stir  in 
powdered  sulphur  to  form  an  ointment.  Wash  the  parts 
three  times  a  day  with  castile  soap-suds,  and  apply  the 
ointment. 

DIFFICULTY  OF  URINE. 

SYMPTOMS. — A  frequent  desire  to  make  water,  attended 
with  pain,  heat,  and  difficulty  in  doing  so ;  a  fulness  io 
the  bladder. 


245 

TREATMENT. — If  it  arise  from  simple  irritation  by  blis- 
ters, etc.,  plentiful  draughts  of  warm  liquids,  as  gum 
arabic  or  barley  water,  will  be  sufficient  to  remove  it.  If 
from  any  other  cause,  a  bladder  half  filled  with  warm 
water,  or  cloths  wrung  out  of  a  warm  decoction  of  herbs, 
should  be  kept  constantly  applied  over  the  parts,  and  mild 
clysters  of  thin  starch  be  frequently  injected. 

INFLAMMATORY  RHEUMATISM. 

SYMPTOMS. — Pain,  swelling,  and  inflammation  in  some 
one  (or  several)  of  the  larger  joints.  The  pain  shifting 
from  one  part  to  another,  all  the  symptoms  of  fever,  pulse 
full  and  hard,  tongue  white,  bowels  costive,  and  urine 
high  colored. 

TREATMENT. — Bleed  the  patient  freely,  or  until  the 
pulse  is  sensibly  affected  by  it,  and  purge  him  with  salts 
and  senna.  The  Dover's  powder  should  be  taken  to  pro- 
cure sweating,  and  a  very  low  diet  be  strictly  observed. 

If  the  pain  continue  severe,  and  the  blood  already  drawn 
shows  a  yellow  or  buffy  coat,  bleed  again.  The  in- 
flammation must  be  reduced,  and  we  are  not  to  lay 
aside  the  lancet  till  that  is  done.  In  severe  cases  it  has 
been  found  necessary  to  bleed  twice  a  day,  for  four  or  five 
days  in  succession.  Active  purging  with  salts  and  senna 
must  not  be  neglected.  When  the  disease  is  overcome, 
if  in  consequence  of  the  bleeding,  etc.,  the  patient  is  left 
very  low  and  weak,  wrap  him  up  in  blankets,  give  him 
warm,  nourishing  food,  wine,  etc.  etc. 

CHRONIC  RHEUMATISM. 

SYMPTOMS. — A  chronic  rheumatism  is  nothing  more 
than  one  of  long  standing.  It  is  unaccompanied  by  fever, 
and  makes  its  attacks  on  every  change  of  weather,  on 
getting  wet,  etc.  etc.  It  is  frequently  caused  by  in  flam- 


246 

matory  rheumatism,  and  sometimes  seems  to  exist  as  a 
primary  affection. 

TREATMENT. — There  has  been  found  no  one  plan  of 
treatment  in  this  species  of  the  disease,  so  effectual  as  the 
following  :  Purge  with  senna  and  salts,  every  other  day, 
rub  the  parts  well  with  volatile  liniment,  and  use  Cayenne 
pepper  and  mustard  at  dinner,  in  large  quantities,  and  on 
going  to  bed  thirty  drops  of  laudanum,  with  a  tea-spoonful 
of  the  tincture  of  guaiacum.  It  is  to  be  recollected,  that 
this  is  applicable  only  to  chronic  cases;  if  there  is  fever, 
etc.,  it  will  do  much  damage.  Should  there  be  any  cause 
to  suspect  that  a  venereal  taint  is  connected  with  it,  have 
recourse  to  the  decoction  of  guaiacum  and  sarsaparilla. 
A  large  blister  frequently  relieves  the  whole  of  the  symp- 
toms in  the  course  of  a  night.  The  best  safeguard  against 
the  complaint,  is  the  use  of  flannel  next  the  skin,  winter 
and  summer. 

RUPTURES. 

Ruptures  are  tumors  caused  by  the  protrusion  of  a  part 
of  the  bowels  through  certain  natural  openings.  They 
are  divided  into  reducible,  irreducible,  and  strangulated. 
They  mostly  occur  in  men  in  the  groin  and  bag. 

CAUSES. — Straining  in  any  way,  as  at  stool,  vomiting, 
lifting  heavy  weights,  violent  exercise,  as  jumping,  run- 
ning, etc.,  a  natural  weakness  of  the  parts. 

REDUCIBLE  RUPTURES. 

SYMPTOMS. — A  small  swelling,  free  from  pain,  and 
generally  soft,  the  color  of  the  skin  over  it  remaining 
unaltered.  While  standing  up,  the  swelling  increases,  on 
lying  down,  it  decreases,  the  patient  being  able  to  return 
the  parts  himself,  while  in  that  position.  The  swelling  is 
also  increased  by  coughing,  sneezing,  or  straining  as  if 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.          247 

at  stool.     If  he  is  flatulent,  a  rumbling  sensation  may  be 
felt  in  it, 

TREATMENT. — The  patient  should  place  himself  on  his 
back,  with  his  head  and  shoulders  a  little  elevated,  draw 
up  his  knees  to  his  belly,  and  (if  in  this  position  the  parts 
do  not  return  of  themselves,)  endeavor  to  push  or  knead 
them  up  into  the  belly,  through  the  opening  at  which  they 
come  wit,  and  which,  if  the  tumor  be  in  the  groin  or  bag, 
is  an  oval  ring  or  slit  in  the  groin,  at  the  precise  spot 
where  the  swelling  first  appeared.  When  this  is  effected, 
he  should  remain  quiet  till  a  truss  can  be  procured,  the 
spring  of  which  must  be  passed  round  his  body,  the  pad 
be  applied  directly  over  the  spot  just  mentioned,  and  held 
there  with  one  ha'nd,  while  .the  other  passes  the  strap  into 
the  buckle  and  draws  it  sufficiently  tight.  Having  done 
this,  he  should  get  up  and  walk  about.  If  the  swelling 
no  longer  appears,  the  truss  is  properly  applied  ;  if  other- 
wise, take  it  off,  return  the  parts  as  before,  and  apply  it 
again  ;  when,  if  on  rising,  walking  about,  slightly  cough- 
ing,  etc.,  the  parts  are  found  to  be  well  kept  up,  he  may 
resume  his  ordinary  business.  The  truss  should  be  worn 
night  and  day,  as  long  as  he  lives. 

IRREDUCIBLE  RUPTURES. 

SYMPTOMS. — A  rupture  in  which  there  is  no  pain,  yet 
that  cannot  be  returned  into  the  belly,  caused  by  an  in- 
creased bulk  of  the  parts,  or  their  having  formed  adhe- 
sions, or  grown  fast  to  adjoining  parts. 

TREATMENT. — A  rupture  thus  situated  must  be  left  to 
itself.  The  patient  should  be  extremely  cautious  in  his 
diet,  and  in  avoiding  costiveness,  by  the  use  of  clysters, 
or  if  necessary,  laxative  medicines.  He  should  also  be 
very  careful  to  protect  the  tumor  from  blows,  always  re- 
collecting that  it  is  in  danger  of  strangulation. 


248 

PILES. 

SYMPTOMS. — A  pain  in  the  fundament  when  going  tc 
stool ;  on  examination  small  tumors  are  pereeivecfto  pro- 
ject beyond  its  verge.  They  are  of  two  kinds,  the  blind 
and  bleeding.  They  may  also  be  internal  and  external. 

BLIND  PILES. 

TREATMENT. — A  diet  of  rye  mush  and  milk,  strictly  ad- 
hered to  for  a  length  of  time,  will  very  frequently  cure 
the  disease.  If  they  project,  are  swelled,  and  painful, 
apply  twenty  or  thirty  leeches  to  them,  and  cold  applica- 
tions. The  common  gall  ointment  is  a  very  soothing 
application.  Balsam  copavia,  in  doses  sufficiently  large 
to  purge  freely,  is  also  highly  recommended.  A  radical 
cure,  however,  is  only  to  be  sought  for  in  the  knife  or  lig- 
ature, for  which  apply  to  a  surgeon.  If  the  pain  is  very 
great,  laudanum  may  be  taken  to  ease  it. 

BLEEDING  PILES. 

TREATMENT. — If  the  bleeding  is  considerable,  inject  a 
solution  of  alum  or  a  decoction  of  oak  bark.  This  evac- 
uation is  sometimes  salutary,  and  it  often  requires  much 
judgment  to  know  if  it  should  be  stopped  or  not. 

The  following  remedy  is  taken  from  that  most  excellent 
work  "  The  Family  Nurse,"  by  the  accomplished  Mrs. 
Childs : 

An  ounce  of  low  mallows  boiled  in  a  pint  of  new  milk  till 
reduced  to  three  gills  ;  strain  it,  and  add  one  gill  of  West 
India  molasses.  To  le  used  about  Woodwarm,  injected 
daily. 

TO  DIMINISH  INORDINATE  INFLAMMATION. 
Mix  one  drachm  extract  of  lead,  or  solution  of  sugar  of 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  249 

lead  in  water,  with  four  ounces  of  alcohol,  and  six  ounces 
of  water.  Make  a  lotion,  which  is  to  be  applied  to  those 
surfaces^where  inflammation  is  very  great. 

Another  method. — Dissolve  two  drachms  of  white  vitriol 
in  a  pint  of  distilled  water.  To  be  applied  as  above. 

MARSH-MALLOW    FOMENTATION    FOR    THE    SAME. 

Boil  together  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  an  ounce  of 
dried  marsh-mallow  root,  with  half  an  ounce  of  chamo- 
mile  flowers,  in  a  pint  of  water ;  strain  through  a  cloth. 
The  fomenting  flannels  should  be  sprinkled  with  spirits, 
just  before  they  are  applied  to  the  inflamed  part. 

FOMENTATION    OF    POPPIES. 

.  • 

Bruise  four  ounces  of  dried  poppy  heads,  and  then  boil 
them  in  six  pints  of  water,  until  a  quart  only  remains 
after  straining.  This  fomentation  is  to  be  applied  to  in- 
flamed parts,  where  there  is  much  pain,  but  which  are 
required  to  suppurate. 

REFRIGERANT    LOTION. 

Mix  together  equal  parts  of  acetated  water  of  ammonia 
and  tincture  of  camphor ;  which  apply  to  the  inflamed 
joint  or  other  part. 

Another. — Dissolve  an  ounce  of  muriate  of  ammonia  in 
four  ounces  of  common  vinegar,  and  add  ten  ounces  of 
water,  to  be  applied  with  or  without  a  cloth  to  the  inflamed 
surfaces. 

Another. — Mix  together  two  ounces  of  rectified  spirits, 
and  five  ounces  of  acetated  water  of  ammonia. 
11* 


350 


SEDATIVE    LOTION. 


Dissolve  Haifa  drachm  of  sugar  of  lead  in  four  ounce 
of  vinegar,  and  then  add  an  ounce  of  common  spirits  wit 
a  pint  of  water.  Linen  cloths  dipped  in  this  lotion  are  1 
be  applied  to  inflamed  parts,  etc. 

COLD    AND    SEDATIVE    POULTICE. 

Take  of  goulard  water,  (or  solution  of  sugar  of  lead,) 
drachm  and  a  half;  rectified  spirits,  two  ounces  ;  wate 
a  pint.     These  are  to  be  mixed  with  a  sufficient  quantit 
of  the  crumb  of  a  new  loaf,  so  as  to  form  a  poultice, 
be  applied  at  night  to  the  inflamed  parts. 

Another. — Mix  with  a  crumb  of  bread  as  above,  or 
drachm  of  goulard  water  (or  solution  of  sugar  of  lea< 
and  a  pint  of  common  water  that  has  been  boiled. 

POULTICE  TO  HASTEN  SUPPURATION. 

Make  two  parts  of  finely-powdered  bran,  and  one  pa 
of  linseed  meal,  into  a  poultice,  with  boiling  water, 
little  oil  should  be  spread  over  the  surface  just  before 
is  applied. 

Another. — Take  a  crumb  of  bread  and  linseed  mea 
equal  parts.  Make  them  into  a  poultice  with  boiling  mil 

LINSEED    POULTICE. 

Stir  linseed  flour  into  boiling  water,  in  sufficient  qua 
tity  to  form  a  poultice  of  proper  consistency,  and  befo 
application,  smear  the  surface  with  a  little  olive  or  li 
seed  oil.  If  irritation,  with  great  pain  and  hardness  shou 
prevail,  it  will  be  necessary  to  substitute  a  decoction  ( 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  251 

poppy  heads  for  the  common  water.     This  poultice  is  in 

general  use  in  all  the  hospitals. 

• 

EMBROCATION    FOR    SPRAINS. 

Shake  in  a  phial,  until  they  become  white  like  milk, 
ten  drachms  of  olive  oil,  with  two  drachms  of  spirits  of 
hartshorn  ;  then  add  four  drachms  of  oil  of  turpentine. 
When  properly  mixed,  they  may  be  directly  used  as  an 
embrocation  for  sprains  and  bruises. 

Where  weakness  remains  in  consequence  of  a  sprain, 
cold  water  ought  to  be  pumped  on  it  every  morning  ;  and 
a  long  calico  roller  should  be  bound  firmly  (but  not  too 
tight,)  round  it  immediately  after.  ,  By  these  means, 
strength  will  soon  be  restored. 

Another. — Digest  fifteen  ounces  of  white  hard  soap, 
scraped  with  a  knife,  in  four  pints  of  alcohol,  and  one  pint 
of  hartshorn,  previously  mixed  in  a  large  bottle.  When 
dissolved,  add  five  ounces  of  camphor.  When  this  last  is 
entirely  dissolved,  the  embrocation  is  fit  for  use. 

This  elegant  and  powerful  stimulant  was  selected  from 
the  Pharmacopoeia  of  the  Middlesex  Hospital,  for  private 
use.  The  above  quantities  of  the  ingredients  are  to  be 
reduced  in  proportion  to  each  other,  according  to  the 
quantity  likely  to  be  used  in  a  family.  If  one-third  only 
is  required,  use  five  ounces  of  soap,  one  of  camphor,  six- 
teen of  spirits  of  wine,  and  four  of  water  of  ammonia. 

APPLICATION    OF    LEECHES. 

In  the  applying  of  leeches  to  the  human  body,  success 
is  rendered  more  certain  by  previously  drying  them,  or 
allowing  them  to  creep  over  a  dry  cloth.  To  attract 
them,  the  part  should  be  moistened  with  cream,  sugar,  or 
blood,  and  if  this  should  be  insufficient,  the  leech  may  be 


252 

cooled  by  touching  it  with  a  cloth  dipped  in  cold  \vatef« 
The  escape  of  leeches  from  the  part  is  to  be  prevented  by 
covering  them  with  a  wineglass  or  tumble* 

BURNS  AND  SCALDS. 

'Take  of  linseed  Or  olive  oil,  lime  Water,  each  equal 
parts,  or  three  ounces,  by  measure  ;  mix,  by  shaking 
them  together*  This  liriimertt  is  extremely  useful  in 
cases  of  scalds  or  burns,  being  singularly  -efficacious  in 
preventing,  if  applied  in  time,  the  inflammation  subse- 
quent to  these,  or  even  in  removing  it  after  it  has  come  on, 

Another.— ^Littie- water  with  linseed  oil  has  often  been 
Used  as  a  liniment,  in  the  proportion  of  an  ounce  and  a 
half  tc>  the  latter,  to  three  ounces  of  the  former.  This  is 
a  very  excellent  application. 

Another. — Many  medical  men  are  partial  to  the  use  of 
lime-Water  and  common  spirits  immediately  after  the  ac- 
cident, in  proportion  of  three  ounces  of  the  latter  to  six 
ounces  of  the  former.  This  mixture  should  be  applied 
cold,  and  the  parts  kept  constantly  covered  with  a  fine  linen 
cloth  clipped  in  it. 

Another. — Raw  potatoes,  scraped  or  grated,  may  be 
advantageously  applied  to  recent  burns  and  scalds,  if 
nothing  better  can  conveniently  be  had.  But,  perhaps, 
the  best  application,  immediately  after  the  accident,  is 
common  spirits,  with  a  solution  of  sugar  of  lead,  in  the 
proportion  of  twelve  ounces  of  the  latter,  to  four  ounces 
of  the  former. 

Another. -~ 'Apply  oatmeal  and  cold  water  to  the  part 
affected,  immediately  after  the  accident ;  keep  it  on  as  a 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  253 

poultice  all  night ;  next  morning,  if  not  serious,  it  will  be 
quite  well,  neither  blister  nor  wounds  appearing. 

In  all  cases  of  burns  and  scalds,  it  is  necessary  to  ob- 
serve, that  if  fever  should  ensue,  gently  laxative  medi- 
cines ought  to  be  administered.  The  best  are  castor  oil 
and  epsom  salts. 

If  the  injury  arising  from  the  scald  or  burn  be  rery 
severe,  suppuration  should  be  promoted  by  fomentations 
and  emollient  poultices*  The  deformity  or  constriction 
of  muscles  and  tendons,  which  arises  from  burns  and 
scalds,  is  to  be  obviated  as  much  as  possible  by  bandage 
and  position.  Particular  attention  must  be  paid  to  posi- 
tions where  joints  are  concerned,  and  in  burns  in  the 
neck.  In  all,  the  limbs  should  be  as  much  as  possible 
in  tneir  natural  situation  of  rest ;  but  the  head,  in  par- 
ticular, should  be  kept  in  a  proper  position. 

EXTENSIVE    BURNS    AND    SCALDS. 

In  several  bad  cases  of  burns  and  scalds,  the  topical 
application  of  well-carded  cotton  wool  has  succeeded  in 
effecting  a  cure  in  a  few  days.  For  this  discovery  we 
are  indebted  to  chance.  The  child  of  a  negro  in  the 
West  Indies,  in  consequence  of  falling  into  boiling  water, 
was  most  dreadfully  scalded  ;  the  mother,  being  ignorant 
of  any  mode  of  treatment,  immediately  laid  the  child  on 
the  cotton  wool  she  had  been  carding,  and  covered  it  over 
with  it.  The  cotton  wool  adhered  closely  to  the  injured 
parts,  and  being  caked  by  the  discharge,  completely  de- 
fended the  surface  from  the  action  of  the  atmosphere.  In 
the  course  of  a  few  days  the  whole  peeled  off  with  the 
injured  skin,  leaving  a  healthy  surface  covered  with  a 
new  cuticle.  The  same  treatment  has  been  adopted  in 
Scotland,  and  elsewhere,  in  several  bad  cases  of  burns 
and  scalds,  with  singular  happy  results.  When  the  dis- 


254  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

charge  exudes  through  the  first  layer,  more  cotton  must  be 
added  to  absorb  it.  In  order  that  it  may  adhere  to  the  in- 
jured part,  the  surface  should  be  moistened  with  oil. 

POULTICE    FOR    ULCERS. 

Boil  any  quantity  of  fresh  carrots  until  they  are  suffi- 
ciently soft  to  be  beaten  up  into  a  smooth  pulp.  This  is 
equally  beneficial  to  the  cure  of  cancerous,  as  well  as 
scorbutic  ulcers.  The  latter  are  known  by  a  brown  color, 
the  discharge  being  thin  and  corroding,  while  the  fungous 
excrescences  which  shoot  out,  bleed  on  the  slightest  touch. 
The  ulcer  is  surrounded  by  a  livid  ring,  in  which  small 
spots  are  frequently  observed.  The  former  are  known 
by  their  very  irregular  surface,  from  several  parts  of 
which  blood  exudes.  They  are  attended  by  shooting 
pains,  and  have  a  fetid  discharge. 

Another. — Boil  any  quantity  of  the  bottom  leaves  of 
the  common  meadow  sorrel,  until  they  are  sufficiently 
soft ;  then  beat  them  into  a  smooth  pulp,  which  is  to  be 
applied  as  a  poultice  to  ulcers  of  the  above-mentioned 
nature. 

Another. — Poultices  of  the  pulp  of  apples  have  been 
successfully  employed  for  these  ulcers.  They  are  made 
by  mixing  two  ounces  of  the  pulp  of  boiled  apples  with 
the  same  weight  of  the  crumb  of  bread. 

LOTION    FOR    SCORBUTIC    ULCERS. 

Mix  from  one  to  two  drachms  of  muriate  acid  (spirit  of 
salt)  with  a  pint  of  water.  This  lotion  is  very  useful  in 
cleansing  and  stimulating  the  above-mentioned  ulcers. 

Another. — Make  a  lotion  by  dissolving  half  an  ounce 


255 

of  salt-petre  in  half  a  pint  of  common  vinegar,  with 
which  cleanse  the  ulcers  in  question. 

MALT   POULTICE. 

Mix  as  much  ground  malt  with  half  a  pint  of  yeast  as 
will  make  a  poultice  of  moderate  consistence.  This  poul- 
tice is  gently  stimulating,  and  very  serviceable  in  destroy- 
ing the  fetid  and  disagreeable  smell  which  arises  from 
foul  ulcers  and  gangrenous  wounds. 

Another. — A  similar  poultice,  and  for  the  same  pur- 
pose, is  prepared  by  stirring  into  an  infusion  of  malt,  as 
much  oatmeal  as  may  be  required  to  make  it  of  a  proper 
thickness,  and  afterward  adding  about  a  spoonful  of  yeast. 

STRONG    BEER    POULTICE. 

Stir  into  half  a  pint  of  ale,  or  strong  beer-grounds,  as 
much  oatmeal  or  linseed  meal,  as  will  make  a  poultice 
of  proper  thickness.  This  will  prove  an  excellent  stimu- 
lant and  antiseptic  for  foul  ulcers.  It  should  be  applied 
as  warm  as  the  parts  will  bear,  and  should  be  renewed 
every  six  hours. 

YEAST    POULTICE. 

Mix  well  together  one  pound  of  linseed  meal,  and  a 
pint  of  ale  yeast.  Expose  this  to  a  gentle  heat,  until  a 
certain  degree  of  fermentation  takes  place.  This  poultice 
is  excellent  for  stimulating  and  cleansing  foul  ulcers. 

CHARCOAL    POULTICE. 

To  half  a  pound  of  the  common  oatmeal  poultice,  add 
two  ounces  of  fresh  burnt  charcoal,  finely  pounded  and 
sifted.  Mix  the  whole  well  together,  and  apply  it  to  foul 


256  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

ulcers  and  venereal  sores ;  the  fetid  smell  and  unhealtny 
appearance  of  which  it  speedily  destroys. 

EYE-WATERS. 

Take  of  extract  of  lead,  ten  drops ;  rose-water,  six 
ounces.  Mix,  and  wash  the  eyes  night  and  morning. 

Another. — Take  of  extract  of  lead,  ten  drops ;  spirits  of 
camphor,  twenty  drops  ;  rose-water,  half  a  pint.  Mix. 
This  eye-water  is  extremely  useful  in  ophthalmia  at- 
tended with  much  inflammation. 

Another. — Take  of  opium,  ten  grains ;  camphor,  six 
grains  ;  boiling  water,  twelve  ounces  ;  rub  the  opium  and 
camphor  with  the  boiling  water,  and  strain.  This  eye- 
water abates  the  pain  and  irritation  attendant  on  severe 
cases  of  inflammation  of  the  eyes. 

Another. — Take  of  white  vitriol,  half  a  drachm ;  spirits 
of  camphor,  one  drachm  ;  warm  water,  two  ounces;  rose- 
water,  four  ounces.  Dissolve  the  vitriol  in  the  warm 
water,  and  add  the  spirits  of  camphor  and  rose-water. 
This  is  a  useful  eye- water  in  the  chronic  state  of  ophthal- 
mia, or  what  is  generally  called  weakness  of  the  eyes, 
after  inflammation. 

COMPOUND   COLOCYNTH   PILLS. 

Take  of  pith  of  colocynth,  cut  small,  six  drachms ;  aloes, 
one  ounce  and  a  half;  scammony,  one  ounce  and  a  half: 
cardamon  seeds,  husked  and  bruised,  one  drachm  ;  castile 
soap,  softened  with  warm  water,  so  as  to  have  a  gelati- 
nous consistence,  three  drachms ;  warm  water,  one  pint. 
Digest  the  colocynth  in  the  water,  in  a  covered  vessel, 
with  a  moderate  heal,  for  four  days.  To  the  liquor,  ex- 
pressed and  filtered,  add  the  aloes  and  scammony,  sepa- 
rately, reduced  to  powder ;  then  evaporate  the  mixture 
to  a  proper  thickness  for  making  pills,  having  added,  to- 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  257 

ward  the  end  of  the  evaporation,  the  soap-jelly  and 
powdered  seeds,  and  mix  all  the  ingredients  thoroughly 
together. 

These  pills  are  much  used  as  warm  and  stomachic 
laxatives ;  they  are  well  suited  for  costiveness,  so  often 
attendant  on  people  of  sedentary  lives,  and,  upon  the 
whole,  are  one  of  the  most  useful  articles  in  the  materia 
medica. 

ALGETIC    PILLS. 

Take  of  socotrine  aloes,  powdered,  one  ounce  ;  extract 
of  gentian,  half  an  ounce ;  oil  of  caraway  seeds,  two  scru- 
ples ;  syrup  of  ginger,  as  much  as  is  sufficient.  Beat  them 
together.  The  dose  is  about  ten  grains. 

COMPOUND   ALOETIC    PILLS. 

Take  of  hepatic  aloes,  one  ounce  ;  ginger  root,  in  pow- 
der, one  drachm  ;  soap,  half  an  ounce  ;  essence  of  pepper- 
mint, half  a  drachm.  Powder  the  aloes  with  the  ginger, 
then  add  the  soap  and  the  oil,  so  as  to  form  an  intimate 
mixture.  This  is  an  excellent  purge  for  costive  habits, 
in  the  dose  of  from  five  to  ten  grains. 

CASTOR    OIL   CLYSTER. 

Take  of  castor  oil,  two  ounces ;  one  egg ;  mix  them 
well,  and  then  add  gruel,  eight  ounces,  which  will  ope- 
rate very  mildly,  and  is  efficacious  in  cases  of  worms. 

PURGING    CLYSTER. 

Take  of  manna,  one  ounce  ;  dissolve  in  ten  ounces,  by 
measure,  of  compound  decoction  ofchamomile  ;  then  add 
of  olive  oil,  one  ounce ;  sulphate  of  magnesia,  half  an 
ounce.  Mix,  and  let  it  be  given  directly. 


258 


PURGATIVE    POWDER,    FORMERLY  CALLED    PICRA. 


Take  of  socotrine  aloes,  one  pound  ;  white  canella,  three 
ounces.  Powder  them  separately,  and  then  mix  them. 
The  spicy  canella  acts  as  a  corrigent  to  the  aloes;  but 
the  compound  is  more  adapted  to  be  formed  into  pills  than 
to  be  used  in  the  state  of  powder.  It  is  a  convenient  me- 
dicine for  costive  habits,  not  subject  to  the  piles.  Dose, 
from  ten  grains  to  a  scruple  at  bed-time. 


The  following  recipe  was  copied  from  one  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  late  Emperor  of  France,  and  was  a  very  fa- 
vorite remedy  with  Napoleon  for  difficulty  of  breathing, 
or  oppression  of  the  chest,  arising  from  a  collection  of 
mucus  in  the  air  cells  and  vessels  of  the  lungs,  and  in  the 
gullet.  Considerable  benefit  has  been  derived  from  them 
in  many  similar  cases.  Take  of  ipecacuanha  root,  in 
powder,  thirty  grains  ;  squill  root,  in  powder,  gum  ammo- 
niac,  do.  each  two  scruples  ;  mucilage  of  gum  arabic,  suf- 
ficient to  form  a  mass.  To  be  divided  into  twenty-foui 
pills  •  two  to  be  taken  every  night  and  morning. 


Mix  together  four  drachms  of  syrup  of  squills,  foui 
drachms  of  elixir  of  paregoric,  four  drachms  of  syrup  o! 
poppies.  Of  this,  take  a  tea-spoonful  in  a  little  tea  01 
warm  water,  as  occasion  requires. 


Take  four  drachms  of  paregoric  elixir,  two  drachms  o 
sulphuric  ether,  two  drachms  of  tincture  of  tolu.  Mix 
and  take  a  tea-spoonful  night  and  morning,  or  when  the 
cough  is  troublesome,  in  a  little  milk-warm  water. 


THE.  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  259 

SIMPLE  REMEDY  FOR  COUGHS. 

Take  of  boiling  water,  half  a  pint ;  black  currant  jelly, 
a  dessert-spoonful  ;  sweet  spirits  of  nitre,  a  tea-spoonful. 
Mix  the  jelly  in  the  water  first,  till  it  is  quite  dissolved, 
and  add  the  nitre  last.  Take  a  dessert-spoonful  of  the 
mixture  at  night,  going  to  bed,  or  when  the  cough  is 
troublesome.  The  mixture  should  be  made  and  kept  in 
a  tea-pot,  or  other  covered  vessel. 

REMEDY  FOR  CHRONIC  COUGH. 

The  following  is  very  serviceable  in  common  obstinate 
coughs,  unattended  with  fever.  Take  of  tincture  of  tolu, 
three  drachms  ;  elixir  of  paregoric,  half  an  ounce  ;  tincture 
of  squills,  one  drachm.  Two  tea-spoonsful  to  be  taken 
in  a  tumbler  of  barley-water  going  to  bed,  and  when  the 
cough  is  troublesome. 

FOR  COUGHS  IN  AGED  PERSONS. 

In  the  coughs  of  aged  persons,  or  in  cases  where  there 
are  large  accumulations  of  purulent  or  viscid  matter, 
with  feeble  expectoration,  the  following  mixture  will  be 
found  highly  beneficial :  Pour  gradually  two  drachms  of 
nitric  acid,  diluted  in  half  a  pint  of  water,  on  two  drachms 
of  gum  ammoniac,  and  triturate  them  in  a  glass  mortar, 
until  the  gum  is  dissolved.  A  table-spoonful  to  be  taken, 
in  sweetened  water,  every  two  or  three  hours. 

GARGLE    FOR    SORE    THROAT. 

Take  of  decoction  of  bark,  seven  ounces ;  tincture  of 
rryrrh,  two  drachms  ;  nitre,  three  drachms.  Make  into 
a  gargle.  This  is  a  sovereign  method  to  disperse  a  tume- 
fied gland,  or  common  sore  throat.  By  taking  on  such 
occasions  a  small  lump  of  purified  nitre,  putting  it  into  the 


260 


mouth,  and  letting  it  dissolve  there,  then  removing  it,  and 
applying  it  again  in  a  few  seconds,  and  swallowing  the 
saliva,  I  have,  says  Dr.  Thornton,  for  many  years  pre- 
vented a  sore  throat  from  forming. 

FOR  PUTRID  SORE  THROAT. 

Take  of  decoction  of  bark,  six  ounces ;  diluted  vitriolic 
acid,  one  drachm ;  honey  of  roses,  one  ounce.  Make 
into  a  gargle  ;  to  be  used,  mixed  with  port  wine,  fre- 
quently during  the  day. 

FOR    INFLAMMATORY    SORE    THROAT. 

T,ake  of  nitre,  two  drachms ;  honey,  four  drachms ; 
rose-water,  six  ounces.  Mix.  To  be  used  frequently. 

Another. — Take  of  spirits  of  salts,  twenty  drops ;  honey 
of  roses,  half  an  ounce  ;  water,  four  ounces.  Mix. 

PILLS   FOR   RHEUMATISM. 

Take  of  guaiacum  (gum  resin)  powder,  and  soap,  equal 
parts,  one  drachm  ;  oil  of  juniper,  four  drops.  Make 
into  twenty-eight  pills ;  take  two  four  times  a  day.  This 
is  an  admirable  remedy. 

OINTMENT    FOR    THE    SAME. 

An  ointment  of  stramonium,  made  by  gently  boiling 
six  ounces  of  the  recent  leaves  (bruised)  in  a  pound  and 
a  half  of  fresh  hogs'  lard,  till  they  become  crisp,  is  in  high 
repute  as  a  remedy  for  this  disease.  The  size  of  a  nut- 
meg, Dr.  Turner,  of  Philadelphia,  has  found  to  remove 
rheumatic  pains,  after  electricity  and  powerful  liniments, 
with  internal  remedies,  had  totally  failed  ;  and  Dr.  Zol- 
lickofier  says,  that  he  has  known  the  stramonium  oint- 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND- BOOK. 

ment  to  succeed  in  cases  of  rheumatism,  after  the  internal 
exhibition  of  the  tincture  of  stramonium  had   no  effect. 
For  internal  use  he  prefers  a  tincture  of  the  leaves  (made 
in  the  proportion  of  an  ounce   and  a  half  of  the  drie< 
leaves  to  a  pint  of  proof  spirits,)  to  the  extract. 

TONIC    FOR    DEBILITY    IN    FEMALES. 

Take  of  soft  extract  of  bark,  two  drachms  ;  Colombo, 
rust  of  iron,  each  one  drachm  ;  simple  syrup,  as  much  as 
is  sufficient.  Make  into  fifty  pills  ;  take  two,  and  gradu- 
ally increase  to  five,  three  times  a  day. 

SORE    NIPPLES. 

Chapped  or  sore  nipples  are  very  frequent  with  those 
who  give  suck.  In  this  case,  the  olive  oil  is  a  very 
proper  application  ;  or  fresh  cream  spread  upon  fine 
linen  ;  or  a  solution  of  gum  arable  in  water. 

It  is  almost  needless  to  observe,  that  whatever  appli- 
cations be  made  use  of  to  the  nipples,  they  ought  always 
to  be  washed  off  before  the  child  is  permitted  t 

ROOT  BEER. 

The  following  beer  is  an  excellent  medicine  for  diseases 
of  the  blood  : 
Sassafras  root. 
Burdock  root. 

Wild  cherry  bark— of  the  root. 
Root  of  black  alder. 
Spice  wood. 

Boil  several  hours,  strain  and  sweeten  with  molasses  or 
sugar  ;  add  when  blood-warm,  sufficient  yeast  to  ferment 
it  g  When  it  ferments,  it  is  fit  to  drink.  A  little  ginger 
and  hops  helps  it  much. 


262  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

ANTI-BILIOUS   MEDICINE. 

Jalap,  one  pound. 
Senna,  two  do. 
Clored,  two  ounces. 

A  tea-spoonful  is  a  dose,  given  in  warm  water.  It  is 
a  capital  medicine. 

NERVOUS    PILL. 

Extract  of  valerian  and  chamomile,  equal  parts ; 
made  into  three-grain  pills.  Take  three  or  four  a  day. 

COMMON     POULTICE. 

Pulverized  slippery. elm  bark,  stirred  into  hot  milk  or 
water,  till,  of  the  right  thickness.  This  is  the  best  poul- 
tice that  can  be  had. 

STRENGTHENING    PLASTER. 

Hemlock  gum,  three  parts  ;  white  turpentine,  one  part ; 
dissolve  and  strain. 

CURE     FOR     SCROFULA. 

Yellow  dock  root,  two  pounds. 
Bark  of  bitter-sweet  root,  two  pounds. 
Boil  thoroughly,  and  sweeten.  Give  a  wine-glassful  be- 
fore each  meal. 

HEALING    SALVE. 

Sweet  oil,  three  quarts. 

Resin,  three  ounces. 

Beeswax,  three  ounces. 

Melt  together  ;  then  add  powdered  red  lead  two  pounds, 
heat  all  these  together,  and  when  nearly  cold  add  a  piece 
of  camphor  as  large  as  a  nutmeg. 

Good  for  burns,  etc.  etc.  etc. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  263 

USEFUL  DOMESTIC  MEDICINES. 


Take  of  ipecacuanha  in  powder,  opium  (purified,)  each 
one  part ;  sulphate  of  potass,  eight  parts.  Triturate  them 
together  into  a  fine  powder. 

The  dose  is  from  two  to  five  grains,  repeated  accord- 
ing as  the  patient's  stomach  and  strength  can  bear  it.  It 
is  proper  to  avoid  much  drinking  immediately  after  taking 
it,  otherwise  it  is  very  apt  to  be  rejected  by  vomiting,  be- 
fore any  other  effects  are  produced.  Perspiration  should 
be  kept  up  by  diluents. 

COMPOUND   SOAP    LINIMENT. 

Take  of  camphor,  one  ounce  ;  soap,  three  ounces ;  spirit 
of  rosemary,  one  pint. 

Digest  the  soap  in  the  spirit  of  rosemary,  until  it  be  dis- 
solved, and  add  to  it  the  camphor.  This  is  useful  to  ex- 
cite action  on  the  surface,  and  is  used  to  disperse  scrofu- 
lous enlargements,  and  to  moisten  flannel  which  is  applied 
to  the  throat  in  cases  of  quinsy. 

SIMPLE    OINTMENT. 

Take  of  olive  oil,  five  ounces ;  white  wax,  two  ounces. 
This  is  a  useful  emollient  ointment  for  softening  the 
skin.  * 

COMPOUND    BURGUNDY    PITCH     PLASTER. 

Take  of  Burgundy  pitch,  two  pounds ;  laudanum,  one 
pound  ;  yelkr  ~esin,  and  yellow  wax,  each  four  ounces. 


264  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

To  the  pitch,  resin,  and  wax,  melted  together,  add  first 
the  laudanum. 

After  a  long-continued  cough  in  the  winter,  a  Burgun- 
dy pitch  plaster  should  be  put  over  the  breast-bone. 

^  ADHESIVE    PLASTER. 

Take  of  common,  or  litharge  plaster,  five  parts  ;  white 
resin,  one  part. 

Melt  them  together,  and  spread  the  liquid  compound 
thin,  on  strips  of  linen,  by  means  of  a  spatula,  or  table- 
knife. 

This  plaster  is  very  adhesive  and  is  used  for  keeping 
on  other  dressings,  etc. 

TINCTURE    OF    GINGER. 

Take  or  ginger,  in  coarse  powder,  two  ounces  ;  alcohol, 
two  pints. 

Digest  in  a  gentle  heat  for  seven  days,  and  strain. 

This  tincture  is  cordial  and  stimulant,  and  is  general- 
ly  employed  as  a  corrective  to  purgative  draughts. 


Dissolve  half  an  ounce  of  opium,  one  drachm  of  oil  of 
sassafras,  in  two  ounces  of  alcohol.  Now  mix  four  pounds 
of  molasses,  with  one  gallon  of  water,  and  when  cold  mix 
both  solutions.  This  is  generally  used  to  soothe  the  pains 
of  children,  etc. 

SYRUP    OF  POPPIES. 

Take  of  the  heads  of  white  poppies,  dried,  three  pounds 
and  a  half;  double-refined  sugar, six  pounds;  water, eight 
gallons.  9 

Slice  and  bruise  the  heads,  then  boil  them  in  the  water 
to  three  gallons,  and  press  out  the  decoction.  Reduce 


265 

tins  by  boiling,  to  about  four  pints,  and  strain  it  while  hot 
through  a  sieve,  then  through  a  thin  woollen  cloth,  and  set 
it  aside  for  twelve  hours,  that  the  grounds  may  subside. 
Boil  the  liquor  poured  off  from  the  grounds  to  three 
pints,  and  dissolve  the  sugar  in  it,  that  it  may  be  made  a 
syrup. 

This  syrup,  impregnated  with  the  narcotic  matter  of 
the  poppy-head,  is  given  to  children  in  doses  of  two  or 
three  drachms,  and  to  adults  of  from  half  an  ounce,  to  one 
ounce  and  upward,  for  easing  pain,  procuring  rest,  and 
answering  the  other  intentions  of  mild  operations.  Par- 
ticular care  is  requisite  in  its  preparation,  that  it  may  be 
always  made,  as  nearly  as  possible,  of  the  same  strength. 

TAR  WATER. 

Take  of  tar,  two  pints  ;  water,  one  gallon.  Mix,  by 
stirring  them  with  a  wooden  rod  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour, 
and,  after  the  tar  has  subsided,  strain  the  liquor,  and  keep 
it  in  well-corked  phials. 

Tar- water  should  have  the  color  of  white  wine,  and  an 
empyreumatic  taste.  It  acts  as  a  stimulant,  raising  the 
pulse,  and  increasing  the  discharge  by  the  skin  and  kid- 
neys. It  may  be  drank  to  the  extent  of  a  pint  or  two  in 
course  of  a  day. 

DECOCTION    OF    SARSAPARILLA. 

Take  of  sarsaparilla  root,  cut,  six  ounces  ;  water,  eight 
pints. 

After  macerating  for  two  hours,  with  a  heat  about  195 
degrees,  then  takeout  the  root  and  bruise  it ;  add  it  again 
to  the  liquor,  and  macerate  it  for  two  hours  longer :  then 
boil  down  the  liquor  to  four  pints,  and  strain  it.  The 
dose  is  from  four  ounces,  to  half  a  pint,  or  more,  daily. 


2G6 

DECOCTION    OF    THE    WOODS. 

Take  of  guaiaeum  raspings,  three  ounces;  raisins, 
stoned,  two  ounces ;  sassafras  root,  sliced,  liquorice  root, 
bruised,  each  one  ounce ;  water,  ten  pounds. 

Boil  the  guaiaeum  and  raisins  with  the  water,  over  a 
gentle  fire,  to  the  consumption  of  one  half,  adding,  toward 
the  end,  the  sassafras  and  liquorice,  and  strain  the  decoc- 
tion without  expression. 

This  decoction  is  of  use  in  some  rheumatic  and  cuta- 
neous affections.  It  may  be  taken  by  itself,  to  the  quan- 
tity of  a  quarter  of  a  pint,  twice  or  thrice  a  day,  or  used 
as  an  assistant  in  a  course  of  mercurial  or  antimonial  al- 
teratives ;  the  patient  in  either  case  keeping  warm,  in 
order  to  promote  the  operation  of  the  medicine. 

WATER    GRtJEL. 

Put  a  large  spoonful  of  oatmeal  in'o  a  pint  of  water, 
stir  it  well  together,  and  let  it  boi1  >ree  or  four  times, 
stirring  it  often.  Then  strain  it  tin  gh  a  sieve,  put  in 
some  salt  according  to  taste,  and  if  necessary  add  a  piece 
of  fresh  butter.  Stir  with  a  spoon,  until  the  butter  is 
melted,  when  it  will  be  fine  and  smooth. 

PANADA. 

Put  a  blade  of  mace,  a  large  piece  of  the  crumb  of 
bread,  and  a  quart  of  water,  in  a  clean  saucepan.  Let 
it  boil  two  minutes,  then  take  out  the  bread,  and  bruise  it 
very  fine  in  a  basin.  Mix  with  it  as  much  of  the  warm 
water  as  it  will  require,  pour  away  the  rest,  and  sweeten 
it  to  the  taste  of  the  patient.  If  necessary,  put  in  a  piece 
of  butter  of  the  size  of  a  walnut,  but  add  no  wine  Grate 
in  a  little  nutmeg  if  requisite. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAVD-TOOK.  207 

ISINGLASS  JELLY,  ETC. 

Put  an  ounce  of  isinglass,  and  half  an  ounce  of  cloves, 
into  a  quart  of  water.  Boil  it  down  to  a  pint,  strain  it 
upon  a  pound  of  loaf-sugar,  and  when  cold  add  a  little 
wine,  when  it  will  be  fit  for  use.  A  very  nourishing 
beverage  may  be  made  by  merely  boiling  the  isinglass 
with  milk,  and  sweetening  with  lump-sugar. 

BEEF    TEA. 

Take  off  the  fat  and  skin  from  a  pound  of  lean  beef, 
and  cut  it  into  pieces.  Then  put  it  into  a  gallon  of  water, 
with  the  under  crust  of  a  penny  loaf,  and  a  small  portion 
of  salt.  Let  the  whole  boil  till  reduced  to  two  quarts,  and 
strain,  when  it  will  be  fit  for  use. 

Another  method. — In  some  cases,  when  the  patient  is 
very  weak,  the  tea  must  be  made  thus :  Take  a  piece  of 
lean  beef,  cut  it  across  and  across,  then  pour  on  it  scald- 
ing water.  Cover  it  up  close,  and  let  it  stand  till  cold. 
Then  pour  it  off,  and  warm  it  as  the  patient  requires, 
having  seasoned  it  moderately. 

TRANSPARENT    SOUP    FOR    CONVALESCENTS. 

Cut  the  meat  from  a  leg  of  veal  into  small  pieces,  and 
break  the  bone  into  several  bits.  Put  the  meat  into  a  very 
large  jug,  and  the  bones  at  the  top,  with  a  bunch  of  com- 
mon sweet  herbs,  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  mace,  and  half 
a  pound  of  almonds,  finely  blanched  and  beaten.  Pour 
on  it  four  quarts  of  boiling  water,  and  let  it  stand  all 
night,  covered  close  by  the  fireside.  The  next  day  put  it 
into  a  well-tinned  saucepan,  and  let  it  boil  slowly,  till  it 
is  reduced  to  two  quarts.  Be  careful,  at  the  time  it  is 
boiling,  to  skim  it,  and  take  off  the  fat  as  it  rises.  Strain 
into  a  bowl,  and  when  settled  for  two  hours,  pour  it  into 


268  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

a  clean  saucepan,  clear  from  the  sediments,  if  any.  Add 
three  ounces  of  rice,  previously  boiled  in  a  little  water. 
When  once  more  boiled,  it  will  be  fit  for  use 

SEIDLITZ    POWDERS. 

Take  of  Rochelle  salts,  one  drachm ;  carbonate  of  soda, 
twenty-five  grains;  tartaric  acid,  twenty  grains. 

Dissolve  the  two  first  in  a  tumbler  of  water,  then  add 
the  latter,  and  swallow  without  loss  of  time. 


OF    AC  CIDENTS. 

Whenever  a  blow  has  been  inflicted,  whether  by  being 
thrown  from  a  horse,  out  of  a  carriage,  by  falling  from  a 
height,  or  any  other  way,  bleed  the  patient  to  the  amount 
of  twelve  or  fourteen  ounces,  on  the  spot,  if  practicable  ; 
if  not,  as  soon  after  the  accident  as  possible.  This  rule 
admits  of  but  one  exception,  and  that  is,  when  the  vio- 
lence has  been  so  great  as  nearly  to  extinguish  all  the 
powers  of  life,  in  which  case,  it  is  proper  to  wait  for  symp- 
toms of  returning  animation.  To  hasten  these,  a  little 
wine  and  water,  or  other  stimulus  may  be  given. 

If,  in  consequence  of  a  broken  bone  or  other  injury, 
the  patient  is  unable  to  walk,  take  a  door  from  its  hinges, 
lay  him  carefully  on  it,  and  have  him  carried  by  assist- 
ance to  the  nearest  house.  If  no  door  or  sofa  can  be 
procured,  two  boards,  sufficiently  long  and  broad,  should 
be  nailed  to  two  cross-pieces,  the  ends  of  which  must  pro- 
ject about  a  foot,  so  as  to  form  handles.  If  in  the  woods, 
or  where  no  boards  can  be  procured,  a  litter  may  be 
formed  from  the  branches  of  trees.  In  this  way  a  hand- 
barrow  may  be  constructed  in  a  few  minutes,  on  which 
the  sufferer  may  be  properly  carried. 


If  he  has  been  wounded  and  bleeds,  the  bleeding  must 
be  stopped  before  he  is  removed. 

Having  reached  a  house,  lay  him  on  a  bed,  and  undress 
him  with  care  and  gentleness.  If  any  difficulty  arises 
in  getting  off  his  coat  or  pantaloons,  rip  up  the  seams, 
rather  than  use  force.  This  being  done,  proceed  to  as- 
certain the  nature  of  the  injury. 

This  may  be  either  simple  or  compound;  that  is,  it 
majf  be  a  contusion  or  bruise,  a  wound,  fracture  or  dislo- 
cation, or  it  may  be  two  or  all  of  them  united  in  one  or 
several  parts. 

A  contusion  is  the  necessary  consequence  of  every 
blow,  and  is  known  by  the  swelling  and  discoloration  of 
the  skin. 

Wounds  are  self-evident. 

Fractures  are  known  by  the  sudden  and  severe  pain, 
by  the  rnis-shapen  appearance  of  the  limb,  sometimes  by 
its  being  shortened,  by  the  patient  being  unable  to  move 
it  without  excruciating  pain,  but  most  certainly,  by  grasp- 
ing the  limb  above  and  below  the  spot  where  the  fracture 
is  supposed  to  exist,  and  twisting  it  different  ways,  when 
a  grating  will  be  felt,  occasioned  by  the  broken  ends  of 
the  bone  rubbing  against  each  other.  If  the  swelling, 
however,  is  very  great,  this  experiment  should  not  be 
made  until  it  is  reduced. 

Dislocations,  or  bones  being,  out  of  joint,  are  known  by 
the  deformity  of  the  joint  when  compared  with  its  fellow, 
by  the  pain  and  inability  to  move  the  limb,  by  its  being 
longer  or  shorter  than  usual,  and  by  the  impossibility  of 
moving  it  in  particular  directions. 

OF  SPRAINS. 

Plunge  the  part  sprained  into  very  cold  water,  and 
hoV;  it  there  as  long  at  a  time  as  you  can  bear  it — for 


270  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

several  hours — then  rub  it  well  with  camphorated  spirits. 
If  the  accident  has  happened  to  a  joint,  as  in  the  ankle, 
and  it  remains  weak,  pour  cold  water  on  it  from  the  spout 
of  a  tea-kettle,  held  at  a  distance,  several  times  in  the  day. 

OF  CONTUSIONS. 

If  slight,  bathe  the  part  frequently  with  cold  vinegar  and 
water  for  a  few  hours,  and  then  rub  it  well  with  brandy,  or 
spirits  of  any  kind.  Should  it  be  very  great,  or  sovas  to 
have  affected  the  whole  body,  which  may  be  known  by 
a  general  soreness,  bleed  and  purge  the  patient,  and  con- 
fine him  to  a  diet  of  rice-water,  lemonade,  panada,  etc. 
If  fever  comes  on,  repeat  the  bleeding,  purging,  etc.  In 
all  cases  of  this  nature,  be  sure  the  water  is  regularly 
evacuated,  for  it  sometimes  happens  that  in  consequence 
of  the  nerves  of  the  bladder  being  palsied  by  the  blow,  the 
patient  feels  no  desire  to  pass  it,  though  the  bladder  be 
full.  If  a  suppression  ensues,  pass  a  catheter,  if  possible, 
or  procure  assistance  for  that  purpose.  The  most  serious 
effects,  however,  resulting  from  contusion,  are  when  the 
blow  is  applied  to  the  head,  producing  either  concussion 
or  compression  of  the  brain. 

CONCUSSION  OF  THE  BRAIN. 

SYMPTOMS — The  patient  is  stunned ;  his  breathing  slow ; 
drowsiness;  stupidity;  the  pupil  of  the  eye  rather  contract- 
ed ;  vomiting.  After  a  time  he  recovers. 

TREATMENT. — Apply  cloths  dipped  in  cold  vinegar  and 
water  to  his  head,  and  when  the  stupor  is  gone  bleed 
him,  and  open  his  bowels  with  epsom  salts.  He  should  be 
confined  to  the  bed,  kept  on  a  low  diet,  in  a  quiet  situation, 
and  every  measure  taken  to  prevent  an  inflammation  ol 
the  brain  ;  which,  if  it  comes  on,  must  be  treated  by  co- 
pious bleeding,  blisters,  etc. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  27! 

COMPRESSION  OF  THE  BRAIN. 

SYMPTOMS — Loss  of  sense  and  motion  ;  slow,  noisy  and 
laborious  breathing;  pulse  slow  and  irregular;  the  muscles 
relaxed,  as  in  a  person  just  dead;  the  pupil  of  the  eye 
enlarged,  and  will  not  contract  even  by  a  strong  light ;  the 
patient  lies  like  one  in  an  apoplectic  fit,  and  cannot  be 
roused. 

TREATMENT. — Open  a  vein  and  draw  off  sixteen  or  twen- 
ty ounces  of  blood  ;  shave  the  head,  and,  if  possible,  pro- 
cure  surgical  assistance  without  delay,  as  there  is  nothing 
but  ar  ooeration  that  can  be  of  any  avail, 

OF  WOUNDS, 

Wounds  are  of  three  kinds,  viz  :  incised,  punctured,  and 
contused  ;  among  the  latter  are  included  gunshot  wounds, 
The  first  step  in  all  wounds,  is 

TO    STOP    THE    BLEEDING. 

If  the  flow  of  blood  is  but  trifling,  draw  the  edges  of  the 
wound  together  with  your  hand,  and  hold  them  in  that 
position  some  time,  when  it  will  frequently  stop.  If,  on 
the  contrary,  it  is  large,  of  a  bright  red  color,  flowing  in 
spirts  or  with  a  jerk,  clap  your  finger  on  the  spot  it  springs 
from,  and  hold  it  there  with  a  firm  pressure,  while  you 
direct  some  one  to  pass  a  handkerchief  round  the  limb 
(supposing  the  wound  to  be  in  one,)  above  the  cut,  and 
to  tie  its  two  ends  together  in  a  hard  knot.  A  cane,  whip- 
handle,  or  stick  of  any  kind,  must  now  be  passed  under 
the  knot,  (between  the  upper  surface  of  the  limb  and  the 
handkerchief.)  and  turned  round  and  round  until  the  stick 
is  brought  down  to  the  thigh,  so  as  to  make  the  handker- 
chief encircle  it  with  considerable  tightness.  You  may 
then  take  off  your  finger,  if  the  blood  still  flows,  and  tight- 


272 

en  the  handkerchief  by  a  turn  or  two  of  the  stick,  until  it 
ceases.  The  patient  may  now  be  removed  (taking  care 
to  secure  the  stick  in  its  position,)  without  running  any 
risk  of  bleeding  to  death  by  the  way. 

As  this  apparatus  cannot  be  left  on  for  any  length  of 
time,  without  destroying  the  life  of  the  parts,  endeavor  as 
soon  as  possible  to  secure  the  bleeding  vessels,  and  take 
it  off.  Having  waxed  together  three  or  four  threads  of  a 
sufficient  length,  cut  the  ligature  they  form  into  as  many 
pieces  as  you  think  there  are  vessels  to  be  taken  up,  each 
piece  being  about  a  foot  long.  Wash  the  parts  with 
warm  water,  and  then  with  a  sharp  hook  or  a  slender  pair 
of  pincers  in  your  hand,  fix  your  eye  steadily  upon  the 
wound,  and  direct  the  handkerchief  to  be  relaxed  by  a 
turn  'or  two  of  the  stick ;  you  will  now  see  the  mouth  of 
the  artery  from  which  the  blood  springs ;  seize  it  with 
your  hook  or  pincers,  draw  it  a  little  out,  while  some  one 
passes  a  ligature  round  it,  and  ties  it  up  tight  with  a 
double  knot.  In  this  way,  take  up  in  succession  every 
bleeding  vessel  you  can  see  or  get  hold  of. 

If  the  wound  is  too  high  up  in  a  limb  to  apply  the 
handkerchief,  don't  lose  your  presence  of  mind :  the  bleed- 
ing can  still  be  commanded.  If  it  is  the  thigh,  press  firm- 
ly in  the  groin  ;  if  in  the  arm,  with  the  hand-end  or  ring 
of  a  common  door  key,  make  pressure  above  the  collar 
bone,  and  about  its  middle  against  the  first  rib  which  lies 
under  it.  The  pressure  is  to  be  continued  until  assistance 
is  procured,  and  the  vessel  tied  up. 

If  the  wound  is  on  the  head,  press  your  finger  firmly 
on  it,  until  a  compress  can  be  brought,  which  must  be 
bound  firmly  over  the  artery  by  a  bandage.  If  the  wound 
is  in  the  face,  or  so  situated  that  pressure  cannot  be  effect- 
ually made,  or  you  cannot  get  hold  of  the  vessel,  and  the 
blood  flows  fast,  place  a  piece  of  ice  directly  over  the 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  273 

wound,  and  let  it  remain  there  till  the  blood  coagulates, 
when  it  may  be  removed,  and  a  compress  and  bandage 
be  applied. 

INCISED  WOUNDS. 

By  an  incised  wound  is  meant  a  clean  cut.  Having 
stopped  the  bleeding,  wash  away  all  dirt,  etc.,  that  may 
be  in  it  with  a  sponge  and  warm  water,  then  draw  the 
sides  of  the  wound  together,  and  keep  them  in  that  position 
by  narrow  strips  of  sticking-plaster,  placed  on  at  regular 
distances,  or  from  one  to  two  inches  apart.  A  soft  com- 
press of  old  linen  or  lint  may  be  laid  over  the  whole. 

Should  much  inflammation  follow,  remove  the  strips, 
bleed  and  purge  the  patient,  (who  should  live  very  low, 
and  be  kept  perfectly  quiet,)  according  to  the  exigency  of 
the  case.  If  it  is  plain  that  matter  must  form  before  the 
wound  will  heal,  apply  a  soft  poultice  before  that  event 
lakes  place,  when  dressings  of  some  simple  ointment  may 
be  substituted  for  it. 

Although  narrow  strips  of  linen,  spread  with  sticking- 
plaster,  form  the  best  means  of  keeping  the  sides  of  a 
wound  together,  when  they  can  be  applied,  yet  in  the  ear, 
nose,  tongue,  lips,  and  eyelids,  it  is  necessary  to  use 
stitches,  which  are  made  in  the  following  manner :  Hav- 
ing armed  a  common  needle  with  a  double  waxed  thread, 
pass  the  point  of  it  through  the  skin,  at  a  little  distance 
from  the  edge  of  the  cut,  and  bring  it  out  of  the  opposite 
one,  at  the  same  distance.  If  more  than  one  stitch  is  re- 
quired, cut  off  the  needle,  thread  it  again,  and  proceed  as 
before,  until  a  sufficient  number  are  taken,  leaving  the 
threads  loose  until  all  the  stitches  are  passed,  when  the 
respective  ends  of  each  thread  must  be  tied  in  a  hard  dou- 
ble knot,  drawn  in  such  a  way  that  it  bears  a  little  on  the 
side  of  the  cut.  When  the  edges  of  the  wound  are  partly 
12* 


274 

united  by  inflammation,  cut  the  knots  carefully,  and  with- 
draw the  threads. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  must  be  evident  that  in  all 
wounds,  after  arresting  the  flow  of  blood,  and  cleansing 
the  parts,  if  necesssary,  the  great  object  is  to  bring 
their  sides  into  contact  throughout  their  whole  depth,  in 
order  that  they  may  grow  together  as  quick  as  possible, 
and  without  the  intervention  of  matter.  To  obtain  this 
very  desirable  result,  in  addition  to  the  means  already 
mentioned,  there  are  two  things  to  be  attended  to  ;  the  po- 
sition of  the  patient,  and  the  application  of  the  bandage. 
The  position  of  the  patient  should  be  such  as  will  relax 
the  skin  and  muscles  of  the  part  wounded,  thereby  dimin- 
ishing their  tendency  to  separate. 

A  common  bandage  of  a  proper  width,  passed  over  the 
compresses  moderately  tight,  not  only  serves  to  keep  them 
in  their  place,  but  also  tends,  by  its  pressure,  to  forward 
tne  great  object  already  mentioned.  If,  however,  the 
wound  is  so  extensive  and  painful,  that  the  limb  or  body 
of  the  patient  cannot  be  raised  for  the  purpose  of  applying 
or  removing  it,  the  best  way  is  to  spread  the  two  ends  of 
one  or  two  strips  of  linen  or  leather  with  sticking-plaster, 
which  may  be  applied  in  place  of  the  bandage,  as  follows  : 
attach  one  end  of  a  strip  to  the  sound  skin,  at  a  short  dis- 
tance from  the  compress,  over  which  it  is  to  be  drawn 
with  moderate  firmness,  and  secured  in  a  similar  manner 
to  the  opposite  side.  A  second  or  third  may,  if  necessary, 
be  added  in  the  same  way. 

In  all  wounds,  if  violent  inflammation  come  on,  reduce  it 
by  bleeding,  purging,  etc. 

PUNCTURED  WOUNDS. 

These  are  caused  by  sharp-pointed  instruments,  as 
needles,  awls,  nails,  etc.  Having  stopped  the  bleeding, 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HA.VD-BOOK.  275 

withdraw  any  foreign  body,  as  part  of  a  needle,  splinters, 
bit  of  a  glass,  etc.  that  may  be  in  it,  provided  it  can  be 
done  easily  :  and  if  enlarging  the  wound  a  little  will  enable 
you  to  succeed  in  this,  do  so.  Though  it  is  not  always 
necessary  to  enlarge  wounds  of  this  nature,  yet  in  hot 
weather  it  is  a  work  of  precaution,  which  should  never  be 
omitted.  As  soon  as  this  is  done,  pour  a  little  turpentine 
into  the  wound,  or  touch  it  with  caustic,  and  then  cover  it 
with  a  poultice,  moistened  with  laudanum.  This  practice 
may  prevent  locked-jaw,  which  is  but  too  frequent  a  con- 
sequence  of  wounds  of  this  description.  When  matter 
forms,  cover  the  part  with  mild  dressings,  as  a  common 
sore.  Laudanum  maybe  given  in  large  doses,  to  relieve 
pain,  and  should  the  inflammation  be  excessive,  bleed  and 
purge.  In  hot  weather,  however,  bleeding  should  be  em- 
ployed in  great  moderation. 

CONTUSED    WOUNDS. 

Wounds  of  this  nature  are  caused  by  round  or  blunt  bod- 
ies, as  musket  balls,  clubs,  stones,  etc.  They  are  in  general 
attended  but  by  little  bleeding  ;  if,  however,  there  should 
be  any,  it  must  be  stopped.  If  it  arises  from  a  ball  which 
can  be  easily  found  and  withdrawn,  it  is  proper  to  do  so,  as 
well  as  any  piece  of  the  clothing,  etc.,  tha"t  may  be  in  it; 
or  if  the  ball  can  be  distinctly  felt  directly  under  the  skin, 
make  an  incision  across  it,  and  take  it  out,  but  never  al- 
low any  poking  in  the  wound  to  search  for  such  things ; 
the  best  extractor  of  them,  as  well  as  the  first  and  best 
application  in  contused  wounds,  proceed  from  what  they 
may,  being  a  soft  bread-and-milk  poultice. 

Should  the  inflammation  be  great,  bleed  and  purge. 
Pain  may  be  relieved  by  laudanum,  and  if  the  parts  as- 
sume a  dark  look,  threatening  mortification,  cover  them 
with  a  blister. 


276 

If  the  wound  is  much  torn,  wash  the  parts  Very  nicefy 
with  Warm  Water,  and  then  (having  secured  every  Bleed- 
ing vessel,)  lay  them  all  down  in  as  natural  a -position  as 
you  can,  drawing  their  edges  gently  together,  or  as  much 
so  as  possible,  by  strips  of  sticking-plaster,  or  stitches, 
if  necessary,  A  soft  pooltice;  is  to  be  applied  over  the 
whole. 


POISONED   WOUNDS    FROM    BITES    Of    MAt)   DOGS,    RATTLE 
SNAKES,  ETC*    ETC, 

The  instant  a  person  is  bitten,  either  by  a  mad  dog 
or  any  other  rabid  animal  or  reptile,  he  should  applj 
a  ligature  by  means  of  the  stick,  above  the  wound,  a« 
tightly  as  he  can  well  bear  it,  and  without  hesitation  01 
delay,  cut  out  the  parts  bitten,  taking  along  with  them 
a  portion  of  the  surrounding  sound  flesh.  The  wound 
should  then  be  freely  touched  with  caustic,  or  have  tur- 
pentine poured  into  it.  A  decoction  of  Spanish  flies  in 
turpentine,  may  also  be  applied  to  the  skin  surrounding 
the  wound.  By  these  means  inflammation  will  be  ex- 
cited, and  suppuration  follow,  which  may  prevent  the  usual 
dreadful  consequences  of  such  accidents.  As  soon  as  the 
parts  are  cutt>ut,  take  ofF  the  ligature. 

Should  the  patient  be  too  timid  to  allow  the  use  of  the 
knife,  burn  the  wound  very  freely  with  caustic,  and  place 
in  it  a  tuft  of  tow  or  cotton,  well  moistened  with  the  above 
decoction.  The  discharge  of  matter  that  follows  should 
be  kept  up  for  some  time.  The  only  reasonable  chance 
for  safety,  is  found  in  the  above  plan,  all  the  vegetable 
and  mineral  productions  that  have  been  hitherto  recom- 
mended as  internal  remedies,  being  of  very  doubtful,  if 
of  any  efficacy. 


277 


WOUNDS    OF    THE    EAR,    NOSE,  ETC. 


Wash  the  parts  clean,  and  draw  the  edges  of  the 
wound  together  by  as  many  stitches  as  are  necessary.  If 
the  part  is  even  completely  separated,  and  has  been  trod- 
den under  feet,  by  washing  it  in  warm  water,  and  placing 
it  accurately  in  the  proper  place,  by  the  same  means,  it 
may  still  adhere, 

WOUNDS    OF    THE  SCALP. 

In  all  wounds  of  the  scalp  it  is  necessary  to  shave  off 
the  hair.  When  this  is  done,  wash  the  parts  well,  and 
draw  the  edges  of  the  wound  together  with  sticking-plas- 
ter. If  it  has  been  violently  torn  up  in  several  pieces, 
wash  and  lay  them  all  down  on  the  skulkagain,  drawing 
their  edges  as  nearly  together  as  possible  by  sticking- 
plaster,  or  if  necessary,  by  stitches.  Cover  the  whole 
with  a  soft  compress,  smeared  with  some  simple  oint- 
ment. 

WOUNDS   OF   THE   THROAT. 

Seize  and  tie  up  every  bleeding  vessel  you  can  get 
hold  of.  If  the  windpipe  is  cut  only  partly  through,  se- 
cure it  with  sticking-plaster.  If  it  is  completely  divided, 
bring  its  edges  together  by  stitches,  taking  care  to  pass 
the  needle  through  the  loose  membrane  that,  covers  the 
windpipe,  and  not  through  the  windpipe  itself.  The 
head  should  be  bent  upon  the  breast,  and  secured  by  bol- 
sters and  bandages  in  that  position,  to  favor  the  aproxima- 
tion  of  the  edges  of  the  wound. 

WOUNDS  OF    THE    CHEST. 

If  it  is  a  simple  incised  wound,  draw  the  edges  of  it  to- 
gether by  sticking-plaster,  cover  it  with  a  compress  of 


278  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

linen,  and  pass  a  bandage  round  the  chest.  The  patient 
is  to  be  confined  to  his  bed,  kept  on  very  low  diet,  and  to 
be  bled  and  purged,  in  order  to  prevent  inflammation.  If 
the  latter  comes  on,  reduce  it  by  copious  and  frequent 
bleedings. 

Should  it  be  occasioned  by  a  bullet,  extract  it,  and  any 
pieces  of  cloth,  etc.,  that  may  be  lodged  in  it,  if  possible, 
and  cover  the  wound  with  a  piece  of  linen  smeared  with 
some  simple  ointment,  taking  care  that  it  is  not  drawn 
into  the  chest.  If  a  portion  of  the  lung  protrudes,  return 
it  without  any  delay,  but  as  gently  as  possible. 

WOUNDS  OF   THE  BELLY. 

Close  the  wound  by  strips  of  sticking-plaster,  and 
stitches  passed  through  the  skin,  about  half  an  inch  from 
its  edges,  and  cover  the  whole  with  a  soft  compress,  se- 
cured by  a  bandage.  Any  inflammation  that  may  arise 
is  to  be  reduced  by  bleeding,  purging,  and  a  blister  over 
the  whole  belly. 

Should  any  part  of  the  bowels  come  out  at  the  wound, 
if  clean  and  uninjured,  return  it  as  quickly  as  possible ; 
if  covered  with  dirt,  clots  of  blood,  etc.,  wash  it  carefully 
in  warm  water  previous  to  so  doing.  If  the  gut  is  wound- 
ed, and  only  cut  partly  through,  draw  the  two  edges  of  it 
together  by  a  stitch,  and  return  it ;  if  completely  divided, 
connect  the  edges  by  four  stitches  at  equal  distances,  and 
replace  it  in  the  belly,  always  leaving  the  end  of  the  lig- 
ature project  from  the  external  wound,  which  must  be 
closed  by  sticking-plaster.  In  five  or  six  days,  if  the 
threads  are  loose,  withdraw  them  gently  and  carefully 

OF   FRACTURES. 

The  signs  by  which  fractures  may  be  known,  having 
been  already  pointed  out  with  sufficient  minuteness,  it 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK. 

will  be  unnecessary  to  dwell  thereon ;  it  will  be  well, 
however,  to  recollect  this  general  rule :  In  cases,  where, 
from  the  accompanying  circumstances  and  symptoms,  a 
strong  suspicion  exists  that  the  bone  is  fractured,  it  is 
proper  to  act  as  though  it  were  positively  ascertained  to 
be  so. 

FRACTURES  OF  THE  COLLAR  BONE. 

This  accident  is  of  common  occurrence,  and  is  known 
at  once  by  passing  the  finger  along  it,  and  by  the  swell- 
ing, etc.  To  reduce  it,  seat  the  patient  in  a  chair  with- 
out  any  shirt,  and  place  a  pretty  stout  compress  of  linen, 
made  in  the  shape  of  a  wedge,  under  his  arm,  the  thick 
end  of  which  should  press  against  the  arm-pit.  His  arm, 
bent  to  a  right  angle  at  the  elbow,  is  now  to  be  brought 
down  to  his  side,  and  secured  in  that  position  by  a  long 
bandage,  which  passes  over  the  arm  of  the  affected  side, 
and  round  the  body.  The  fore-arm  is  to  be  supported 
across  the  breast  by  a  sling.  It  takes  from  four  to  five 
weeks  to  reunite. 

FRACTURES    OF   THE   ARM. 

Seat  the  patient  on  a  chair,  or  the  side  of  a  bed,  let  one 
assistant  hold  the  sound  arm,  while  another  grasps  the 
wrist  of  the  broken  one  and  steadily  extends  it  in  an  op- 
posite direction,  bending  the  fore-arm  a  little,  to  serve  as 
a  lever.  You  can  now  place  the  bones  in  their  proper 
situation.  Two  splints  of  shingle  or  stout  paste-board, 
long  enough  to  reach  from  below  the  shoulder  to  near  the 
elbow,  must  then  be  well  covered  with  tow  or  cotton,  and 
laid  each  side  of  the  arm,  and  kept  in  that  position  by  a 
bandage.  The  fore-arm  is  to  be  supported  in  a  sling. 
Two  smaller  splints  may  for  better  security  be  laid  be. 


280 

tween  the  first  ones,  that  is  one  on  top,  and  the  other  \n- 
derneath  the  arm,  to  be  secured  by  the  bandage  in  the 
same  way  as  the  others. 

FRACTURES    OF    THE    RIBS. 

When,  after  a  fall  or  blow,  the  patient  complains  of  a 
pricking  in  his  side,  we  may  suspect  a  rib  is  broken.  It 
is  ascertained  by  placing  the  tips  of  two  or  three  fingers 
on  the  spot  where  the  pain  is,  and  desiring  the  patient  to 
cough,  when  the  grating  sensation  will  be  felt.  All  that 
is  necessary,  is  to  pass  a  broad  bandage  round  the  chest, 
so  tight  as  to  prevent  the  motion-  of  the  ribs  in  breathing, 
and  to  observe  a  low  diet. 

FOREIGN  BODIES  IN  THE  THROAT. 

Persons  are  frequently  in  danger  of  suffocation  from  fish 
bones,  pins,  etc.,  which  stick  in  the  throat.  The  moment 
an  accident  of  this  kind  occurs,  desire  the  patient  to  be 
perfectly  still,  open  his  mouth,  and  look  into  it.  If  you 
can  see  the  obstruction,  endeavor  to  seize  it,  with  your 
finger  and  thumb,  or  a  long  slender  pair  of  pincers.  If 
it  cannot  be  got  up,  or  is  not  of  a  nature  to  do  any  injury 
n  the  stomach,  push  it  down  with  the  handle  of  a  spoon, 
©r  a  flexible  round  piece  of  whalebone,  the  end  of  which 
is  neatly  covered  with  a  roll  of  linen,  or  anything  that 
may  be  at  hand.  If  you  can  neither  get  it  up  nor 
down,  place  six  grains  of  tartar  emetic  in  the  patient's 
mouth.  As  it  dissolves,  it  will  make  him  excessively 
sick,  and  in  consequence  of  the  relaxation,  the  bone,  or 
whatever  it  may  be,  will  descend  into  the  stomach  or  be 
ejected  from  the  mouth. 

If  a  pin,  button,  or  other  metallic  or  pointed  body  has 
been  swallowed,  (or  pushed  into  the  stomach,)  make  the 
patient  eat  plentifully  of  thick  rice  pudding,  and  en- 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND  BOOK.  281 

deavor  to  prevent   him  from  going  to  stool  for  at  least 
twelve  hours. 

OF  BURNS  AND    SCALDS. 

There  are  three  kind  of  remedies  employed  in  accidents 
of  this  nature.  Cooling  applications,  such  as  pounded 
ice,  snow,  vinegar,  cold  water,  lead  water,  etc.  Stimu- 
lants, as  warm  spirits  of  turpentine,  brandy,  or  any  ardent 
spirits,  and  carded  or  raw  cotton; 

Any  of  these  articles  that  happens  to  be  nearest  at  hand, 
may  be  tried,  although  the  preference  is  due  to  the  tur- 
pentine or  spirits,  which  being  made  hot  as  the  patient  can 
bear  it,  is  to  be  applied  to  all  the  burned  surface,  (so  as 
not  to  touch  the  adjoining  sound  skin.)  until  some  common 
basilicon  ointment  can  be  thinned  with  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine to  the  consistence  of  cream,  in  which  state  it  is  spread 
on  a  linen  rag  and  laid  over  the  part,  taking  care,  as  be- 
fore, not  to  let  it  touch  the  sound  skin. 

If,  however,  (the  rule  is  general,)  this  plan  causes  great 
pain  and  inflammation,  it  must  be  abandoned,  and  one  of 
the  others  be  resorted  to,  as  the  pounded  ice,  which  can 
be  readily  applied  in  a  bladder.  Equal  parts  of  lime- 
water  and  linseed  oil,  well  mixed,  forms  one  of  the  most 
soothing  of  all  applications.  Should  much  fever  prevail, 
it  is  to  be  reduced  by  bleeding,  purging,  etc. ;  but  if,  on 
the  contrary  the  system  seems  to  sink,  wine,  bark,  etc., 
must  be  employed. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  BLEEDING. 

Tie  up  the  arm,  placing  the  bandage  at  least  two  inches 
above  the  projection  of  the  elbow  joint,  and  then  feel  for 
the  pulse  at  the  wrist.  If  it  is  stopped,  the  bandage  is  too 
tight,  and  must  be  relaxed.  Select  the  most  prominent 
vein  and  feel  with  the  tip  of  your  finger  if  any  artery  lies 


282 

near  it.  If  you  feel  one  pulsating  so  close  to  the  vein 
that  you  are  fearful  of  wounding  it,  choose  another.  Hav- 
ing set  your  lancet,  (I  allude,  of  course,  to  the  spring  lan- 
cet, the  only  one  that  can  be  used  with  safety,)  bend  the  arm 
in  the  precise  position  it  is  to  be  kept  in  while  the  blood 
flows.  The  cutting  edge  of  the  lancet  is  now  to  be  placed 
on  the  vein,  while  you  depress  the  handle  or  frame  just 
as  much  as  you  wish  the  cut  to  be  deep  ;  by  touching  the 
spring  on  the  side  with  your  thumb,  the  business  is  done. 
To  stop  the  bleeding,  relax  the  bandage,  press  the  two 
edges  of  the  wound  together,  place  a  little  compress  of 
linen  on  it,  and  bind  up  the  whole  with  a  bandage  pass- 
ing  round  the  joint  in  a  figure  eight. 


THK 


FRUIT    GARDEN, 


AMD 


CULTIVATION  OF 


FOREST  AND  FRUIT  TREES. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

THE    FRUIT    GARDEN. 

ONE  hundred  trees  in  most  cases,  would  furnish  an  am- 
pie  supply  for  a  family,  and  may  be  selected  in  the  fol- 
lowing proportions  :* 

15  cherry  trees,  .....................................  at  37*  to  50  cents. 

8  apricot      do  ................................................  ** 


20  peach          do  ................................................  •> 

5  nectarine    do  ................................................  ~* 

8  quince        'do  ............................................... 

4  early  apple  do  ....................  •  ..........................  ^5 

The  common  nursery  prices  are  added  ;  and  the  annual 
interest  on  this  sum,  whether  borrowed  or  appropriated, 
would  barely  replenish  a  tobacco  box  \h  -ough  the  year. 

Now,  a  fruit  garden  containing  this  number  of  trees, 
ought  to  yield  a  constant  supply  of  cherries  for  two  months  ; 
of  apricots  for  one  month  ;  of  pear*  for  two  months  ;  of 
plums  for  three  months  ;  and  of  peaches  for  two  months. 

One  hundred  trees  would  do  well  on  half  an  acre;  but 
if  we  allow  a  square  rod  for  each  tree,  the  fruit  garden 
would  only  be  ten  rods  square.  Now,  a  lot  of  this  size 
may  be  conveniently  appropriated  on  every  farm  ;  and 
where  is  the  owner  who  cannot  build  forty  rods  of  fence  ? 
Let  him  listen,  however  thorny  shrubs  would  afford.  the 
best  protection—  not  against  quadrupeds,  but  Plato's  «  two. 
legged  featherless  animals  ;"  and  the  sooner  such  a 
hedgo  is  planted  the  better. 

*  In  some  regions  some  of  these  fruits  will  not  thrive. 


286  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

Unfortunately  for  the  moral  character  of  our  population, 
fruit  is  too  generally  considered  lawful  plunder.  The 
culturist  is  allowed  to  have  a  full  and  exclusive  right  to 
his  corn  and  potatoes — it  would  be  infamy  to  steal  them  ; 
but  no  exclusive  right  to  his  fruit — if  they  can  get  it. 
Thousands  of  honorable  exceptions  to  this  charge  may  be 
found,  but  it  is  not  the  less  true  that  a  part  of  our  popula- 
tion is  tainted,  and  deserves  to  be  branded  with  reproach. 

The  native  fruit  of  a  thinly  populated  country,  growing 
vrithout  culture,  and  free  for  all — has  doubtless  had  its 
share  in  producing  this  laxity  of  morals.  "  I  would  sooner 
have  a  hundred  Irishmen  round  me  than  one  Yankee," 
was  the  declaration  of  a  sufferer,  whose  fruit  had  been 
plundered  near  the  line  of  the  Erie  canal,  when  that 
great  work  was  in  progress.  But  Europeans  are  generally 
more  exemplary  on  this  point  than  Americans — shame  on 
us  !  When  Professor  Stowe  was  in  Prussia,  where  the 
roads  are  lined  with  fruit  trees  by  order  of  the  government, 
he  observed  a  wisp  of  straw,  attached  to  particular  trees, 
to  protect  the  fruit :  a  sufficient  guard  ;  but  he  suggested 
to  the  coachman  that  in  America,  it  might  only  prove  an 
invitation  to  plunder.  "  Have  you  no  schools  ?"  was  the 
significant  reply. 

One  thing  is  worth  bearing  in  mind  by  those  who  pur- 
chase fruit  trees  :  the  lest  kinds  are  generally  as  hardy  as 
the  worst,  and  the  difference  in  price  fades  into  nothing 
when  compared  with  the  difference  in  quality.  Nobody 
is  satisfied  with  mean  fruit  after  tasting  better. 

For  a  fruit  garden,  a  western  aspect  is  generally  best, 
because  it  is  the  least  subject  to  sudden  transitions  of  tem- 
perature. Severe  vernal  frosts  often  prove  injurious,  or 
otherwise,  according  to  the  weather  that  follows.  If  the 
sky  be  overcast  in  the  morning,  and  the  air  continues  cold, 
little  or  no  damage  occurs  ;  but  when  the  sun  breaks  out 
warm,  the  injury  is  the  greatest ;  and  the  most  so,  where 


THE    EMIGRANT  S    HAND-BOOff. 


287 


the  trees  are  most  exposed  to  his  rays.  For  this  reason, 
a  hill  or  a  wood  on  the  east  side,  may  prove  very  beneficial. 

A  northern  aspect  would  go  far  toward  insuring  regular 
crops  of  the  peach,  nectarine,  apricot,  if  protected  from 
the  sun  and  warm  winds  by  a  belt  of  evergreens.  On 
sandy  soils  especially,  the  reflected  heat  is  often  sufficient 
in  autumn  or  winter,  to  start  the  buds  ;  and  snow  and  ice 
have  been  successfully*  heaped  round  the  trees  to  prevent 
this  disaster ;  but  a  northern  aspect  would  probably  render 
such  labor  unnecessary. 

Dry  firm  ground  should  be  chosen,  preferring  a  sandy 
or  gravelly  loam,  though  clay  will  do  with  good  culture. 
Wet,  peaty,  or  spongy  soils  are  apt  to  be  frosty ;  for  the 
radiation  of  heat  is  much  greater  than  from  firmer  land. 

Four  ORDERS  of  arranging  or  planting  trees  have  been 
employed,  which  the  annexed  figures  exhibit,  all  drawn 
by  the  same  scale  ;  and  the  distance  between  the  nearest 
points  (or  trees)  is  intended  for  one  rod.  One  hundred  of 
these  are  represented  in  two  of  the  figures  ;  but  in  the 
quincunx,  owing  to  the  vacancies  in  the  sides,  only  ninety- 
eight  are  given,  while  in  fig.  3  there  is  a  surplus,  although 
some  vacancies  also  occur  at  the  sides. 


*  We  caused  an  apple  tree  to  bloom  a  fortnight  later  than  the  re»t  of  the  orchard. 

by  piling;  wood  rui.nd  it. 


288 


THE  FARMER'S  AND 


The  first  ORDER  requires  less  calculation,  and  is  more 
generally  in  use  than  any  other  •;  but  in  laying  out  the 
ground,  the  boundaries  should  be  first  accurately  deter- 
mined ;  and  the  lines  may  then  be  drawn  across  it  with 
precision.  No  less  care  and  attention  in  this  respect 
however,  would  be  required  by  the  other  ORDERS. 

The  quincunx  fig.  2,  is  only  a  series  of  squares  laid  off 
diagonally  ;  and  we  cannot  perceive  any  advantage  that 
it  has  over  the  common  square,  though  it  was  formerly 
much  in  fashion.* 

In  the  third  ORDER,  each  tree  (except  at  the  sides)  is 
surrounded  by  six  others,  all  at  equal  distances — in  other 
words,  it  stands  in  the  centre  of  a  hexagon,  made  of  six 
equilateral  triangles.  The  trees  are  thus  more  equally 
distributed  over  the  ground  than  by  any  other  arrange- 
ment ;  and  if  cultivated  by  the  plough,  the  furrows  may 
be  drawn  in  three  different  directions. 

The  fourth  ORDER,  as  explained  by  the  figure,  may  he 
considered  as  rather  a  new  proposition  ;  but  where  a  team 
is  to  cultivate  the  garden,  the  plan  has  some  decided  a«i  - 

*  Pope  said  of  Lord  Peterborough, 

"  Even  he  whose  lightnings  pierced  the  Iberian  lines, 
Now  forms  my  quincunx,  and  now  ranks  my  vines." 


TXE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  289 

vantages.  The  spaces  between  the  rows,  are  wide  enough 
for  the  deepest  ploughing,  though  it  should  be  more  shallow 
near  the  trees,  and  in  no  case  come  close  enough  to  touch 
them.  A  lighter  plough  with  one  horse  walking  in  the 
last  furrow,  however,  may  continue  the  work,  and  save 
much  manual  labor.  And  where  nutriment  is  so  near,  the 
roots  will  soon  find  it. 

To  lay  out  the  garden  according  to  this  plan,  draw  the 
line  for  the  first  row,  one  rod  from  the  fence ;  then  leave 
a  space  two  rods  wide,  and  draw  another  line  ;  and  so  on 
till  the  fifth  row  be  completed,  which  will  be  one  rod  from 
the  fence  on  the  opposite  side.  The  distance  will  allow 
room  enough  to  plough  between  the  trees  and  the  fence,  and 
for  them  not  to  hang  over  and  tempt  prowlers  to  reach 
the  fruit  on  tip-toe. 

Now  10  rods  are  165  feet,  and  32  subtracted  leave  133 
feet,  the  distance  between  the  first  and  last  trees  in  the 
row.  For  20  trees.  19  intervening  spaces  are  wanted  ; 
and  19  into  133  give  seven  feet  for  each  space.  The 
trees  though  crowded  lengthwise,  will  find  ample  room  to 
spread  laterally  ;  and  our  experience  is  decidedly  in  favor 
of  this  method. 

It  has  been  found  very  useful  to  keep  swine  and  poultry 
in  the  fruit  garden,  on  account  of  their  services  in  des- 
troying insects,  and  especially  the  curculio.  In  many 
instances  no  other  protection  has  been  necessary  ;  but 
where  the  garden  is  large,  the  plum,  apricot,  and  nectarine 
should  be  planted  in  the  same  quarter,  so  that  the  hogs, 
(if  wanted,  may  be  confined  among  them  for  a  time. 
Cherries,  and  even  peaches,  would  also  receive  benefit  from 
their  presence,  though  these  fruits  generally  suffer  less 
from  this  insect  than  the  former  sorts.  Cherry  trees  how- 
ever,  should  stand  near  together,  so  that  from  a  central 
seat,  a  load  of  shot  may  protect  them.  We  do  not  mean 
that  all  birds  fond  of  cherries  should  be  destroyed,  but 
13 


290  THE  FARMER'S  ANI> 

only  such  as  take  more  than  a  reasonable  share,  or  that 
Tender  no  services  in  return. 

Many  people  have  a  prejudice  in  favor  of  birds,  that 
no  well  balanced  mind  should  entertain.  "  Denizens  of 
the  air,"  have  no  more  right  to  our  property  that  den- 
izens of  the  earth.  Plunderers  on  two  legs  are  not  more 
respectable  than  plunderers  on  four  legs  ;  and  cedar  birds 
are  entitled  to  no  more  regard  than  rats,  unless  personal 
beauty  can  atone  for  moral  deformity. 

Ornithologists  often  become  partial  to  the  subjects  of 
their  study,  and  side  with  them  against  the  farmer  and  the 
gardener— magnifying  their  services  and  overlooking 
their  trespasses.  The  laborer  indeed  may  drive  the 
geese  from  his  cabbages,  throw  stones  at  the  crows,  and 
even  shoot  a  hawk — but  not  the  birds  that  devour  his 
cherries  ! 

An  amiable  writer,  in  reference  to  such  visitors,  says, 
"  Such  has  been  the  security  they  have  felt  in  our  grounds, 
and  so  great  their  increase,  that  not  only  cherries, gooseber- 
ries, and  currants,  but  apples,  pears,  and  plums,  have  been 
ravaged  ;  and  it  may  become  a  matter  for  serious  consid- 
eration, whether  in  continuing  our  protection,  we  do  not 
risk  the  TOTAL  LOSS  of  some  of  the  most  desirable  append- 
ages to  the  dessert.7'  Now  if  called  into  council,  our  ad- 
vice  would  be  prompt  and  brief:  Treat  them  according 
to  their  doings.  Make  pies  'of  the  robins,  orioles,  and 
cedar  birds — one  chicken  is  worth  a  dozen  of  them  for 
ousiness;  but  save  and  protect  the  blue  birds,  warblers, 
and  sparrows — these  are  always  our  friends. 

Stunted  trees,  always  produce  smaller  fruit  than  when 
the  same  kind  grows  on  vigorous  branches;  but  the  fruit 
suffers  in  flavor  as  well  as  in  size.  The  trees  should 
therefore  be  plante-d  in  deep  beds  of  fertile  soil.  In  dry 
seasons  more  especially  this  provision  is  of  great  impor- 
tance ;  and  young  trees  treated  in  this  manner  are  not  only 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  291 

more  likely  to  live,  but  grow  much  faster,  bear  much 
sooner,  and  bear  much  better  fruit  than  on  sterile  land. 
All  our  observations  go  to  justify  these  remarks. 

When  young  trees  are  taken  from  the  aursery,  inquiry 
is  often  made  how  soon  will  they  come  into  bearing  ?  It 
is  a  very  proper  question,  and  it  would  be  a  proper  an- 
swer  to  say  :  Very  much  according  to  the  treatment  they 
shall  get.  When  they  are  set  in  holes  cut  out  of  a  sod, 
just  large  enough  to  receive  the  root  swith  some  crowding, 
and  are  then  left  to  take  care  of  themselves,  we  have  no 
right  to  expect  them  to  come  soon  into  bearing,  nor  to 
bear  much  when  they  do.  Neither  half  starved  cows,  nor 
half  starved  trees  will  be  found  profitable.  In  the  latter 
case  especially,  the  interest  on  the  purchase  money  is 
generally  lost  for  some  years,  and  not  unfrequently  the 
purchase  too  ;  but  we  hardly  ever  lose  a  tree  in  good  con- 
dition, set  in  mellow  ground  which  is  kept  mellow. 

The  holes  for  the  trees  should  be  not  less  than  four  feet 
diameter  and  fifteen  inches  deep,  but  a  greater  breadth 
and  depth  is  desirable.  Place  the  soil  round  the  brink 
of  the  hole,  ready  for  filling  in  again  ;  but  scatter  the 
harder  subsoil  back  out  of  the  way.  The  hole  should 
then  be  filled  with  the  best  earth,  and  rise  a  few  inches 
above  the  general  surface  on  account  of  its  settling,  first 
mixing  three  or  four  shovelfuls  of  chip-dirt  with  the  part 
that  is  to  come  in  immediate  contact  with  the  roots.  It  helps 
to  keep  the  ground  loose  and  moist,  besides  yielding  much 
nutriment  to  the  trees. 

The  roots  of  the  trees  when  taken  from  the  nursery 
should  be  carefully  guarded  against  drying  or  freezing. 
If  such  care  however,  has  not  been  taken,  bury  the  frozen 
roots  in  the  ground  before  they  can  thaw,  and  plunge  the 
dried  roots  with  several  feet  of  the  main  stem  into  water, 
to  soak  there  from  12  to  24  hours,  till  the  moisture  is  suf- 
ficiently restored. 


292 

In  planting,  spread  out  the  roots  carefully,  and  let  the 
best  point  against  the  strongest  winds.  Fine  or  mellow 
earth  should  fill  up  all  the  spaces  between  the  roots,  so 
that  every  fibre  shall  come  in  contact  with  it  on  every 
side  ;  and  in  order  to  accomplish  this  intention  more  per- 
fectly, throw  in  a  pailful  of  water  when  the  roots  are  cov- 
ered, to  wash  the  earth  down,  and  to  fill  up  every  interstice.* 

Newly  planted  trees  being  acted  on  as  levers  by  the 
wind,  often  press  the  earth  round  their  stems  aside,  and 
make  an  opening  down  to  their  roots,  which  in  conse- 
quence suffer  from  both  drought  and  disturbance.  To 
prevent  this  disaster,  it  is  therefore  important  that  stakes 
should  be  provided  to  support  and  stiffen  them.  If  driven 
before  the  trees  are  planted,  they  may  be  erect ;  if  driven 
afterward  they  may  be  slanting  ;  and  in  both  cases,  straw 
bands  should  be  first  wrapped  once  round  to  prevent  the 
trees  from  chafing. 

When  trees  are  set  in  clay  which  holds  water  like  a 
tub,  they  soak  and  often  perish  ;  especially  if  transplanted 
in  autumn.  This  evil  may  be  readily  prevented  however, 
when  the  plough  can  be  introduced,  by  drawing  several 
very  deep  furrows  where  the  trees  are  to  stand,  clearing 
out  the  loose  earth  with  the  shovel,  and  then  employing 
chips,  brush,  potatoe  tops,  straw,  cornstalks,  or  old  rails,  in 
constructing  an  under  drain.  Even  if  made  with  these 
materials,  it  would  last  for  an  age,  for  when  mouldered 
into  earth,  the  water  would  soak  away  along  the  seam. 

Early  in  summer,  after  the  trees  are  planted,  let  the 
ground  be  well  dug  round  with  the  spade,  commencing 
shallow  near  the  trees,  but  deepening  as  soon  as  there  is 
no  danger  of  disturbing  the  roots.  One  spading  is  worth 
several  hoeings,  though  the  broad  hoe  may  be  profitably 

*  An  experienced  horticulturist  says,  "  Nine-tenths  of  the  deaths  from  transp  ant- 
ing arise  from  the  hollows  left  among  the  roots  of  trees  by  a  careless  and  rapid 
mode  of  shovelling  the  earth  in  about  the  roots." 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  293 

employed  once  a  month  after  the  spade  has  thoroughly 
loosened  the  soil.  Trees  managed  in  this  way,  will  grow 
much  faster  than  if  the  ground  were  just  scratched  over 
to  the  depth  of  an  inch  or  so ;  and  many  of  ours  have  grown 
as  luxuriantly  through  the  late  excessive  drought,  as  if 
they  were  in  want  of  nothing. 

The  pruning  of  young  trees  to  prevent  their  splitting 
down,  is  a  very  important  operation.  Many  are  greatly 
injured  and  sometimes  ruined,  for  want  of  this  precaution. 
Where  the  limbs  diverge  considerably,  nature  has  pro- 
vided a  kind  of  net- work  of  the  firmest  wood  to  connect 
them  together ;  but  where  two  leading  branches  take 
nearly  the  same  direction,  they  soon  begin  to  press  against 
each  other  ;  and  the  bark  interposing,  the  wood  is  pre- 
vented from  uniting.  The  consequence  generally  is,  that 
when  loaded  with  fruit,  they  are  broken  down  by  the  wind. 
Now  it  is  far  better  to  cut  off  the  limb  in  time.  No  ma- 
terial loss  is  sustained,  as  all  the  nutriment  flows  into  the 
other  branches,  and  increases  their  vigor. 

The  advantage  of  pruning  apple  trees,  is  generally 
Known  ;  and  unless  many  of  the  limbs  are  cut  out,  some 
of  the  finest,  varieties  become  comparatively  diminutive 
and  insipid.  The  same  care  however,  is  rarely  extended 
to  other  fruit  trees.  When  the  twigs  become  stunted  and 
mossy,  sometimes  they  are  trimmed  by  the  tempest,  or 
broken  down  by  an  untimely  fall  of  snow ;  and  then  the 
benefits  of  pruning  are  manifest,  even  when  done  in  that 
rough  style.  It  is  better  however,  to  depend  on  art  than 
accident.  As  a  general  rule,  the  best  flavored  fruit  of 
the  kind  grows  on  the  most  vigorous  branches  well  ex- 
posed to  the  sun  and  air ;  and  with  this  idea  constantly 
before  us,  we  shall  hardly  do  amiss  when  we  apply  the 
axe,  the  saw,  or  the  chisel  :  though  we  may  specify  that 
cross  branches  should  be  lopped,  and  thrifty  shoots  that 
have  room  to  spread,  should  be  saved. 


294  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

.The  tree  mosses  are  parasitic  plants,  and  should  be  ex- 
pelled from  the  fruit  garden.  Lye  is  often  used  for  this 
purpose  on  the  apple  tree  ;  but  we  think  it  is  no  .better 
than  lime  whitewash,  which  purifies  the  bark,  and  leaves 
it  in  a  fine  healthy  condition.  Once  a  year  is  quite  suf- 
ficient. 

Under  deep  snows,  or  snow-drifts  that  settle  around  the 
trees,  the  meadow  mouse  often  gnaws  the  bark  to  their 
great  injury  or  destruction.  This  animal  however  always 
works  under  cover ;  and  therefore  the  damage  may  be 
generally  prevented  by  piling  mellow  earth  round  the 
stems,  a  foot  high,  late  in  autumn.  The  snow  as  it  falls, 
is  generally  swept  away  from  the  pile  by  the  wind  ;  and 
even  if  the  mouse  should  persist  in  climbing  up  on  the 
earth — which  we  have  not  known  him  to  do — he  would 
soon  come  out  into  the  open  air,  except  when  the  snow 
was  very  deep. 

Another  method  which  has  never  failed  with  us,  though 
requiring  attention — is  to  tread  the  snow  firmly  down  round 
the  stems  ;  and  this  should  be  carefully  done  every  time 
that  a  deep  snow  falls,  or  whenever  a  drift  is  forming 
round  the  trees.  The  mouse,  as  he  roots  along,  always 
turns  away  from  the  hardened  snow. 

Trees  completely  girdled  by  the  mice  however,  may 
be  saved  by  setting  grafts  early  in  the  spring  to  restore 
the  communication  between  the  two  detached  portions  of 
the  tree — in  other  words,  by  grafting  them  together.  Part 
of  a  small  branch  should  be  inlaid,  both  above  and  below  ; 
and  if  skilfully  done  and  carefully  coated  over  with 
grafting  mud  or  wax,  it  will  be  very  likely  to  grow,  ex- 
cept on  the  peach  or  nectarine.  We  have  succeeded  in 
this  way  on  a  pear  tree  ;  but  three  or  four  should  be  set 
round  the  tree. 

Cultivated  cherries  belong  to  several  species,  which 
have  spread  into  many  varieties,  and  probably  hybrids. 


295 

The  caterpillar  sometimes  feeds  on  the  leaves  ;  and  the 
curculio  punctures  some  of  the  fruit  which  inconsequence 
becomes  wormy  ;  but  no  fruit  tree  yields  a  more  certain 
crop,  bearing  every  year  without  intermission  unless  the 
blossoms  or  young  fruit  be  damaged  by  frost.  Some  kinds 
however,  as  the  morelfo,  have  been  nearly  destroyed  in 
some  parts  of  the  country  by  the  "  black  gum."  This 
excrescence  is  caused  by  an  insect  which  should  be  care- 
fully sought  for,  late  in  the  spring  or  early  in  the  summer; 
and  as  soon  as  the  bunches  appear,  the  limb  should  be 
cut  off  and  burnt. 

The  slug,  another  insect,  feeds  on  the  pulpy  part  of  the 
leaf,  despoiling  its  verdure  and  wasting  the  vigor  of  the 
tree.  It  might  almost  be  mistaken  for  the  filth  of  some 
little  bird.  It  soon  renders  itself  conspicuous  however, 
by  its  works  ;  and  though  it  sometimes  attacks  the  foliage 
of  other  trees,  the  cherry  leaf  appears  to  be  its  favorite 
food.  It  may  be  destroyed  by  throwing  fresh  ashes  among 
the  branches  by  means  of  a  shingle — every  worm  that  is 
covered,  perishes.  It  has  been  done  when  the  dew  was 
on  the  leaves ;  but  if  the  slug  is  moist  enough  of  itself  to 
catch  the  ashes,  it  would  be  better  to  apply  them  when 
the  leaves  are  dry,  because  the  latter  would  neither  be 
injured  by  the  potash,  nor  defiled  by  the  dust. 

The  cherry  tree  is  more  impatient  of  nuisances  than 
most  other  kinds.  Some  have  been  destroyed  by  ashes 
thrown  round  the  stem.  Under  two  trees,  the  pigs  were 
fed  with  corn,  and  the  cobs  scattered  over  the  ground  : 
both  perished.  In  a  slight  depression  near  another,  the 
water  collected  in  rainy  weather,  and  the  geese  dabbled 
in  it :  the  tree  died  the  same  summer.  Lime  whitewash 
has  also  been  charged  with  injuring  the  cherry  tree  ;  and 
if  it  be  used  at  all,  the  experiment  should  be  cautiously 
conducted. 

The  morelh  and  Kentish  appear  to  be  adapted  to  a 


296 

greater  variety  of  soils  than  the  heart  cherry  trees ;  and 
may  be  employed  as  stocks  for  the  latter  in  unfavorable 
situations.  The  outgrowing  of  the  stock  by  the  graft, 
constitutes  no  valid  objection.  We  have  never  seen  a 
tree  endangered  by  such  overgrowth,  while  the  obstruction 
to  the  descent  of  the  juices,  favors  the  enlargement  of  the 
fruit. 

The  apricot  was  formerly  ranked  with  the  plum,  but 
it  differs  enough  to  stand  separate.  Like  the  plum  how- 
ever,  it  has  a  smooth  stone,  and  turns  sour  with  heat ; 
though  in  flavor  it  resembles  the  peach  more  than  any  of 
our  fruits.  It  resembles  it  also  in  the  excitability  of  the 
fruit  buds  in  winter.  Its  earlier  bloom  exposes  it  rather 
more  to  severe  weather  in  the  spring,  but  generally  it 
succeeds  wherever  the  peach  can  be  successfully  culti- 
vated. In  this  climate,  the  tree  is  perfectly  hardy. 

There  are  two  species  of  the  apricot ;  the  black,  and 
the  common  sort,  which  has  spread  into  many  varieties. 
Ripening  earlier  than  the  peach,  their  presence  in  the 
fruit  garden  is  very  desirable. 

Neither  the  borer  nor  the  caterpillar  attack  the  pear 
tree  ;  but  sometimes  flies,  wasps,  and  hornets  are  busy 
among  the  leaves,  showing  that  all  is  not  right,  and  that 
honey-dew  emitted  by  plant  lice,  attracts  them.  But  this 
tree  is  subject  to  a  more  serious  injury,  viz :  the  Jire 
Might,  which  occurs  early  in  summer,  the  leaves  from  the 
extremity  of  the  branches  for  two  or  more  feet,  appearing 
as  if  they  were  scorched.  We  think,  however,  that  two 
distinct  causes  occasionally  operate  to  produce  similar 
effects,  viz  :  insects,  and  a  starting  of  the  bark  in  winter. 

The  late  Professor  Peck,  on  examining  the  branch  of  a 
pear  tree,  which  had  died  with  fire  blight,  said  the  dam- 
age was  caused  by  an  insect,  (Scoly-tus  pyri,)  and  that  to 
cut  off*  the  limbs  a  foot  or  more  below  the  dead  part,  and 
\MMEDIATELY  BURN  THEMj  would  be  the  proper  remedy. 

' 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  297 

mt 

We  have  faithfully  followed  this  advice  ;  and  though  the 
fire  blight  has  been  several  times  in  the  fruit  garden,  its 
ravages  have  always  been  arrested  at  once,  so  that  we 
have  not  lost  a  tree  from  this  cause  in  twenty  years.  We 
have  believed  that  the  new  colonies  went  with  us  when 
we  carried  off  and  destroyed  the  branches. 

The  starting  of  the  bark  in  winter,  appears  to  be  caused 
by  an  untimely  flowing  of  the  sap,  followed  by  intense 
cold,  which  expands  into  ice,  and  separates  the  bark  from 
the  wood.  We  have  observed  such  effects  once  or  twice, 
succeeded  on  some  of  the  smaller  branches,  by  a  blight- 
ing of  the  leaves,  but  we  believe  it  seldom  occurs  in  this 
district. 

The  plum  tree  is  sometimes,  though  rarely,  attacked 
by  the  peach  worm  in  Western  New- York.  Its  most  for- 
midable enemy  however,  is  the  insect  that  causes  the 
"  black  gum,"  similar  in  its  effects  to  the  insect  that  de- 
stroys the  morello,  if  they  are  not  identical.  Be  this  as 
it  may,  it  is  rapidly  increasing ;  and  unless  our  farmers 
shall  turn  over  a  new  leaf,  the  plum  will  soon  become 
very  rare  among  us.  In  every  direction  that  we  travel, 
branches  are  covered  with  these  excrescences  ;  and  if 
there  is  one  man  within  fifty  miles  of  us  who  has  done 
his  duty,  we  should  be  pleased  to  hearJt. 

To  guard  against  this  insect,  the  trees  should  be  well 
pruned,  though  not  enough  to  check  their  vigor,  so  that 
the  bunches  may  be  readily  discovered.  Unless  this  pre- 
caution be  taken,  it  would  be  very  difficult  to  find  all  of 
them,  without  spending  more  time  than  people  in  general 
have  to  spare.  Let  there  be  no  delay  in  cutting  off  and 
burning  them  when  they  are  found. 

It  appears  that  the  eggs  of  this  insect  are  deposited  in 

a  slit  of  the  bark  some  time  during  the  summer,  and  where 

they  generally  pass  the  winter  without  hatching.     Soon 

after  vegetation  commences  in  the  spring,  a  kind  of  fun- 

13* 


298 

gous  wood  is  formed,  swelling  out  on  one  side  of  the  branch, 
and  among  this  the  young  progeny  find  nourishment  and 
shelter.  This  fungous  wood  however,  appears  not  to  be 
occasioned  by  the  worm,  for  it  often  occurs  where  there 
are  none,  but  by  some  irritating  secretion  from  the  parent. 

After  the  late  severe  drought,  when  the  trees  took  a 
second  growth,  we  found  several  new  excrescences  so  late 
in  the  season,  that  probably  the  worms  would  have 
perished  with  cold  if  we  had  not  arrested  their  career. 
Does  the  starting  of  the  fungous  wood  cause  the  eggs  to 
hatch  ? 

We  have  spoken  of  insects  that  depredate  on  the  trees  : 
we  now  turn  to  such  as  injure  the  fruit  by  puncturing  and 
then  depositing  a  nit,  so  that  it  becomes  wormy,  and  drops 
prematurely  from  the  tree. 

Every  person  that  cultivates  the  plum,  apricot,  or  nec- 
tarine, ought  to  be  acquainted  with  the  curculio,  both 
by  sight  and  character.  There  ought  to  be  a  good  draw- 
ing of  this  insect,  but  we  have  seen  none ;  and  at  this 
season  of  the  year,  we  cannot  have  one  prepared.  It  is 
however,  a  dark-brown  bug,  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
long,  and  of  singular  form,  having  a  slender  neck  and 
head.  When  it  drops  from  the  tree,  it  lies  still,  pretend- 
ing to  be  dead ;  pr  if  a  dried  blossom  or  leaf  be  near, 
where  it  can  hide,  it  moves  cautiously  under,  fearing  to 
be  seen  in  motion.  When  crushed  between  the  thumb 
and  finger,  it  feels  1  ke  Indian  meal,  and  like  no  other  in- 
sect that  we  have  examined. 

It  is  timid  ;  and  when  hogs,  sheep,  or  cattle  pass  fre- 
quently under  the  trees,  it  is  scarcer  than  in  more  retired 
places.  Trees  that  stand  near  a  door  where  there  is  much 
passing,  are  often  entirely  exempt  from  its  visits  ;  and  the 
same  result  occurs  where  they  stand  in  a  lane  or  barn- 
yard. The  late  Thomas  Forrest  of  Germantown,  near 
Philadelphia,  tied  one  end  of  a  cord  to  a  plum  tree,  and 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  299 

the  other  end  to  his  pump-handle,  so  that  it  shook  the  tree 
whenever  they  drew  water.  It  saved  the  fruit. 

This  insect  on  one  point  is  very  sagacious.  It  is  un- 
willing to  have  its  progeny  drop  on  the  pavement,  or  into 
water.  The  same  shrewd  horticulturist  set  his  nectarine 
trees  leaning  over  the  fish-pond,  and  not  a  curculio  dis- 
turbed them.  In  regard  to  pavements,  we  have  had 
several  accounts  of  their  efficacy-  A  friend  of  ours  had 
his  plums  to  ripen  perfectly  over  a  pavement,  while  oth- 
ers, without  this  protection,  though  otherwise  favorably 
situated,  were  entirely  destroyed. 

Only  a  few  trees,  however,  can  be  guarded  in  this  way. 
For  the  fruit  garden,  we  want  something  more  compre- 
hensive, and  have  already  referred  to  the  services  of 
swine  and  poultry.  They  devour  much  of  the  wormy 
fruit,  and  the  young  curculios  along  with  it ;  but  some 
of  the  insects  probably  escape,  besides  all  such  as  leave 
the  fruit  before  it  fulls.*  How  long  they  live,  is  not 
known  ;  but  if  we  may  judge  from  their  difference  of  size, 
it  may  be  many  years  ;  and  to  this  company,  the  new 
brood  is  annually  added.  Unless  the  swine  and  poultry, 
therefore,  can  induce  them  to  migrate,  the  fruit  must  suf- 
fer greatly  from  their  ravages,  and  such  has  been  our 
experience. 

Finding  many  of  our  trees  nearly  unproductive,  we 
determined  in  the  early  part  of  last  summer,  to  call  these 
depredators  to  account.  Accordingly,  we  followed  the 
same  plan  that  we  recommended  some  years  ago  in  the 
"  New- York  Farmer  :" — spread  sheets  under  the  trees, 
and  jarred  the  branches  violently.  The  little  marauders 
taken  by  surprise,  fell  down  by  dozens  ;  and  the  contrast 
of  colors,  enabled  us  to  detect  them  at  a  glance.  We 
chose  the  cool  of  the  morning  for  this  purpose,  when  they 

*  Last  summer,  we  observed  several  cases  of  this  kind,  where  the  larva  had  es- 
caped through  small  holes  in  the  sides  of  plums  and  apricots. 


300 

were  slightly  benumbed  ;  and  persevered  till  we  bad  des* 
troyed  nearly  seventeen  hundred.  In  consequence,  all 
the  trees  that  we  visited,  bore  fruit  in  abundance  ;  and 
to1  prove  that  our  labor  was  rewarded,  a  tree  tbat  was 
overlooked  bore  three  apricots,  while  another  of  less  size 
bore  half  a  bushel. 

During  its  migrations,  the  curculio  doubtless  uses  its 
wfngs  ;  and  near  its  native  spot  it  may  occasionally  fly 
into  the  tree ;  but  from  several  circumstances,  we  con- 
elude  that  it  generally  ascends  by  crawling.  With  this 
belief,  circular  tin  troughs  have  been  fastened  round  the 
trees  ;  and  being  filled,  and  kept  filled,  with  water,  have 
been  found  useful — 'for  this  insect  is  no  navigator.  These 
appendages,  however,  should  be  applied  very  early  in  the 
spring,  before  it  gets  up  the  trees.  Afterward  they  are 
not  likely  to  be  of  any  benefit  whatever. 

When  the  earlier  accounts  of  the  curculio  were  pub- 
lished, it  was  believed  to  be  identical  with  the  worms  that 
infest  the  apple,  pear,  and  quince  ;  but  Noyes  Darling  of 
New-Haven,  more  than  ten  years  ago,  discovered  that 
they  were  very  distinct:  and  we  repeated  his  experiment 
with  the  same  result.  It  is  a  dark-gray  miller  that  at- 
tacks the  apple  and  the  pear,  and  probably  the  quince. 
It  was  also  thought  that  the  curculio  continued  its  ravages 
until  autumn;  but  the  same  sagacious  horticulturist  found 
that  its  work  was  finished  before  midsummer. 

The  mark  which  it  leaves  on  the  fruit  that  it  punctures, 
is  in  form  of  a  crescent ;  and  we  have  never  seen  that 
mark  except  on  stone  fruit. 

The  down  of  the  peach  generally  protects  it  against  the 
curculio,  but  the  nectarine,  which  is  only  a  smooth  skin 
variety  of  peculiar  flavor,  often  suffers  even  more  than 
the  plum  or  the  apricot. 

The  peach  worm  (JEgeria  exitfosa)  attacks  the  tree  at 
the  root,  where  the  bark  is  soft  from  the  moisture  of  the 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  301 

ground,  or  the  shading  of  grass ;  but  it  avoids  the  hard, 
scaly  part,  so  that  old  trees  are  often  undisturbed  for  years. 
On  the  reverse,  young  trees  are  much  injured  by  it,  and 
sometimes  destroyed,  especially  where  two  or  more  are 
at  work  at  the  same  time.  If  they  encircle  the  tree,  there 
is  no  hope  of  its  rcovery,  but  this  is  rarely  accomplished 
by  one  worm. 

Though  it  feeds  on  the  pulpy  part  of  the  bark,  it  seems 
careful  not  to  disturb  the  cuticle,  so  that  were  it  not  for 
the  gum  and  filth  mixed  together  on  the  outside,  it  would 
be  difficult  to  find  the  depredator.  The  fresh  filth  however, 
sufficently  indicates  its  presence.  By  entering  a  knife 
at  that  point,  and  slitting  the  cuticle  longitudinally,  the 
establishment  is  soon  broken  up,  for  it  is  seldom  four  in- 
ches in  length ;  and  then  we  discover  a  white  grub  three 
quarters  of  an  inch  long,  which  is  readily  extracted. 
When  it  is  removed,  the  tree  speedily  recovers. 

Some  persons  remove  the  soil  to  the  depth  of  two  or 
three  inches,  and  apply  hot  water,  hot  soap  suds,  or  warm 
brine,  at  any  time  in  autumn  or  spring  when  the  ground 
is  unfrozen  ;  and  if  the  gum  be  also  removed,  so  that  the 
fluid  can.  enter  the  hole,  the  worm  is  sure  to  perish. 

Various  methods  have  been  employed  to  prevent  the 
attacks  of  this  insect.  In  the  spring,  earth  has  been 
piled  round  the  tree  a  foot  high,  covering  up  all  the  bark 
that  was  tender.  With  the  same  object  in  view,  canvas, 
or  ropes  made  of  hay  or  straw,  have  been  wound  about 
the  stem  and  then  coated  with  whitewash.  Straw  in  an 
upright  position  has  also  been  applied.  Tan  in  small 
boxes  has  answered  the  same  purpose  ;  and  its  properties 
are  also  repulsive.  Lime  and  ashes  have  the  same  effect. 
Common  salt,  either  alone  or  mixed  with  nitre,  has  been 
found  efficacious,  besides  promoting  the  growth  and  pro- 
ductiveness of  the  tree.  Half  a  pound  has  been  scattered 
round  it  at  a  time.  Soot  employed  in  the  same  way,  is 


302 

highly  recommended.  A  small  red  cedar,  planted  in  the 
same  hole  with  a  peach  tree  has  protected  it  by  its  offen- 
sive odor.  Charcoal  in  small  pieces,  heaped  up,  is  sup- 
posed to  smother  the  worm  by  choke  damp,  and  sulphur 
to  poison  it  with  its  fumes.  Doubtless  all  are  useful,  but 
the  appendages  should  be  removed  when  the  warm  sea- 
son is  over. 

Sometimes  a  worse  evil  than  the  worm,  however,  over- 
takes the  peach  tree.  This  malady  was  named  by  the 
late  Judge  Peters  of  Pa.  "  the  yellows'"  but  the  leaves 
are  not  always  yellow  as  the  name  would  imply.  A 
more  certain  indication  is  the  premature  ripening  of  the 
fruit,  with  purple  discolo rations  of  the  pulp,  and  deficient 
flavor.  As  the  disease  advances  bundles  of  slender  twigs 
protrude  from  the  larger  branches,  and  increase  till  the 
vital  energy  is  exhausted. 

This  case  is  perhaps  the  only  instance  of  a  contagious 
disease  among  vegetables,  communicated  by  contact  of 
tne  roots,  or  the  application  of  pollen.  That  such 
are  the  facts,  indeed,  has  not  been  directly  proved,  but 
the  circumstantial  evidence  is  strong  and  pointed.  Young, 
nealthy  trees,  speedily  decline  when  planted  among 
diseased  roots.  Frequently,  the  first  appearance  of  the 
premature  ripening  is  confined  to  a  solitary  branch,  when 
no  trace  of  the  disease  can  be  found  in  any  other  part  of 
the  tree.  When  this  happens,  it  is  prudent  to  amputate 
immediately,  although  it  is  doubtful  if  the  tree  itself  can 
be  safely  left  to  stand  till  it  blooms  again.  In  particular 
cases  we  have  pruned  closely,  destroying  the  blossom 
buds  and  giving  it  a  chance  for  recovery,  without  endan- 
gering other  trees  ;  but  we  would  not  recommend  it  as  a 
general  rule,  but  extirpate  the  tree  in  due  time. 

It  is  certainly  known,  however,  that  the  disease  can  b3 
communicated  like  the  small-pox.  We  have  set  buds  of 
sickly  trees  into  healthy  stocks,  and  all  have  perished  ia 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  303 

the  course  of  the  year.  Yet  different  degrees  of  virulence, 
perhaps  depending  on  the  stage  of  the  disease,  are  ob. 
servable. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  on  a  sickly  tree,  the  pit  or 
kernel  is  as  much  affected  as  the  pulp  that  surrounds  it ; 
and  therefore  such  stones  ought  never  to  be  planted  in  a 
nursery.  A  peach  tree  not  attacked  by  worms,  and  free 
from  this  malady,  ought  to  live  at  least  fifty  or  a  hundred 
years  ;  and  we  believe  no  reason  whatever,  except  the 
two  just  mentioned,  can  be  assigned  for  their  early  decay. 
If  the  worm  is  not  at  the  root  therefore,  when  the  tree  is 
sickly,  we  may  conclude  it  has  the  yellows ;  and  that 
this  disease,  if  the  pit  was  tainted,  has 

"  Grown  with  its  growth,  and  strengthened  with  its  strength." 

Some  varieties  of  the  peach  and  nectarine,  are  subject 
to  a  white  mildew,  which  appears  on  the  new  shoots  about 
midsummer,  checking  their  growth,  but  not  attended  with 
any  other  ill  effects.  It  seems  analogous  to  the  mildew 
on  the  grape  and  gooseberry  ;  and  may  be  cured  (it  is 
said)  by  the  application  of  sulphur  water.  A  better  course, 
however,  for  culturists  in  general,  would  be  to  stimulate 
the  tree,  to  make  a  handsome  growth  in  the  early  part  of 
the  season,  and  to  take  no  further  care. 

This  disease  appears  to  be  exclusively  confined  to 
Lindley's  FIRST  CLASS  of  peaches  and  nectarines,  "  whose 
leaves  are  deeply  and  doubly  serrated,  having  no  glands." 
Some  varieties  of  this  class,  however,  suffer  very  little ; 
while  others,  such  as  the  early  Anne,  are  much  impeded 
in  their  growth. 

The  peach  is  justly  considered  the  most  delicious  fruit 
of  the  temperate  zone ;  and  yet  it  is  scarcely  known  in  a 
large  proportion  of  the  State  of  New-York,  which  we  have 
much  reason  to  believe  would  admit  of  its  successful  cul- 
ture. Not  only  in  the  high  lands  between  the  Cayuga 


304  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

lake  and  the  Susquehanna,  but  also  in  the  elevated  region 
between  the  Great  Bend  and  the  Blue  Mountain  in  Penn- 
sylvania, this  tree  has  been  found  healthy  and  fruitful. 
We  saw  several  in  fine  order,  the  very  next  season  after 
some  had  perished  with  the  cold  in  the  low  and  beautiful 
valley  of  Stroudsburgh. 

To  some  persons  this  statement  may  appear  like  a  para- 
dox. But  what  are  the  other  facts  in  this  case  ?  Warmth 
in  winter  is  pernicious.  It  starts  the  sap,  swells  the  bud, 
and  the  intense  cold  that  follows  destroys  bud  and  branch. 
On  the  contrary,  the  steady  cold  of  the  hills  is  conserva- 
tive. The  bud  is  so  exquisitely  folded  and  prepared  for 
a  severe  season,  that  unless  it  is  disturbed  by  the  sap,  it 
is  safe  from  the  greatest  cold  of  our  latitude.  Like  the 
seeds  of  the  melon,  or  a  grain  of  corn?  it  appears  to  be 
too  dry  to  freeze. 

In  the  middle  districts  of  our  State,  let  horticulturists 
therefore  remember,  that  the  hills  are  more  favorable  to 
the  peach  than  the  valleys ;  and  if  their  labors  are  unre- 
warded in  the  low  precincts  of  their  villages,  let  them  oc- 
cupy the  neighboring  heights,  and  lay  out  fruit  gardens 
there.  Let  them  also  remember  that  many  trees  and 
shrubs,  which  are  hardy  in  a  dry  rocky  soil,  perish  with 
the  cold  in  a  rich  border.  In  the  latter  case,  the  wood  is 
not  sufficiently  matured,  and  the  frost  strikes  it  when  it  is 
full  of  sap,  like  a  weed.  To  crop  the  ends  of  the  peach 
shoots,  when  they  grow  too  late,  has  been  useful — not  so 
soon  in  the  season  as  to  start  the  buds,  but  as  soon  as  that 
danger  is  over.  We  have  alluded  to  the  loss  of  the  fruit 
buds  in  winter,  and  the  early  bloom  of  this  tree.  These 
two  causes  render  the  peach  a  more  uncertain  crop  than 
the  plum  or  the  cherry ;  but  particular  circumstances, 
perhaps  not  well  understood,  have  had  an  influence  on  its 
productiveness.  When  trees  stand  in  the  same  imme- 
diate neighborhood,  some  are  barren  while  others  bear ; 


305 

and  a  belief  is  becoming  prevalent  that  grassy  ground  is 
most  favorable.  Though  we  are  not  entirely  prepared  to 
decide  on  this  point,  yet  most  of  our  observations  lean  in 
that  direction  ;  and  if  it  be  proved,  an  exception  to  our 
plan  of  managing  the  fruit  garden,  ought  to  be  made  on 
behalf  of  the  peach,  nectarine  and  apricot,  as  soon  as  those 
trees  are  of  full  bearing  size. 

Some  years  ago,  we  drained  a  shallow  swamp ;  and 
though  the  situation  is  high  and  airy,  peach  trees  of  the 
best  bearing  kinds  planted  there,  have  always  been  unpro- 
ductive. Now  the  annual  cultivation  of  the  soil,  doubt- 
less rendered  it  mare  spongy,*  and  consequently  more 
frosty,  because  it  radiated  more  heat  than  the  paler  and 
firmer  ground.  But  was  this  the  only  cause  ?  and  if  so, 
did  it  cause  the  destruction  of  the  buds  in  winter,  or  in 
the  spring? 

One  fact,  however,  should  not  be  forgotten :  To  Ac- 
celerate the  growth  of  the  peach  tree  when  bearing,  by 
either  culture  or  pruning,  endangers  the  fruit.  In  sum- 
mer, therefore,  the  soil  should  not  be  disturbed. 

The  quince  tree  as  well  as  the  apple  tree,  is  subject  to 
the  attacks  of  the  borer.  The  larva  of  this  insect,  re- 
sembles the  peach  worm  ;  but  it  cuts  through  the  solid 
wood,  and  therefore  is  much  more  difficult  to  extract. 
With  a  barbed  wire,  we  have  often  succeeded,  and  some- 
times failed.  In  a  young  tree  that  had  been  neglected, 
we  found  them  so  deeply  intrenched,  and  their  holes  so 
winding,  that  they  kept  possession.  We  then  made  a 
small  auger  hole  through  the  heart  of  the  tree,  and  filled 
it  with  sulphur.  A  few  days  after  we  found  one  of  them 
in  a  dying  state,  and  no  more  filth  was  ejected.  Quince 
trees  should  be  examined  on  this  account,  at  least  once  a 
year. 

*  Would  the  increased  radiation  from  this  cause,  be  counteracted  by  spreading 
straw,  chaff,  or  shavings  under  the  trees  1 


306 

As  the  pear  tree  is  not  infested  by  the  borer,  it  has 
been  employed  as  a  stock  for  the  quince  tree,  and  if  bud- 
ded or  grafted  a  foot  or  more  from  the  ground,  it  must 
generally  be  safe  from  such  attacks. 

The  quince  tree  like  the  pear  tree,  however,  is  subject 
to  fire  blight ;  but  only  a  few  inches  of  the  ends  of  the 
branches,  suffer.  Whether  this  appearance  is  owing  to 
the  more  stunted  nature  of  the  tree,  or  to  a  different  in- 
sect, is  not  positively  known  ;  but  as  it  is  probably  caused 
by  an  insect,  it  would  be  prudent  to  cut  off  the  dying  tops, 
and  burn  them. 

Though  winter  pears  have  something  like  a  determinate 
time  for  ripening,  or  becoming  soft,  yet  this  period  may 
be  accelerated  or  retarded,  by  increasing  or  diminishing 
the  temperature  of  the  place  where  they  are  kept.  Our 
experiments  on  this  point  within  the  last  year,  have  been 
very  conclusive.  Pears  of  a  sort  that  had  continued  hard 
until  spring  in  a  cool  cellar,  have  ripened  toward  the 
close  of  autumn,  in  a  warm  room ;  and  by  placing  them 
in  different  temperatures,  the  season  for  each  particular 
kind,  may  be  greatly  extended. 

When  winter  fruit  is  buried  in  the  ground  for  long  keep- 
ing, it  should  be  .placed  in  a  box,  or  on  a  bed  of  straw, 
and  be  well  covered  with  the  same,  so  as  not  to  come  in 
contact  with  the  damp  earth,  which  causes  it  to  swell, 
crack,  and  lose  its  flavor  ;  and  to  prevent  it  from  becom- 
ing musty,  it  should  be  kept  in  an  out-house,  till  the 
ground  begins  to  freeze.  We  have  never  known  fruit  to 
be  damaged,  that  was  treated  in  this  manner,  and  then 
timely  removed  in  the  spring. 


CHA  PTER    IX. 


.  GROWING   TIMBER    ON    THE    PRAIRIES. 

MANY,  very  many,  of  those  who  have  found  new  homes 
on  the  broad  prairies  of  the  West,  have  not  regarded 
\nerely  the  advantage  to  themselves  that  would  result 
from  their  removal,  but  have  considered  the  vastly  im- 
proved condition  of  their  children.  It  is  to  such  the 
subject  of  arboriculture  especially  commends  itself.  A 
quarter  section  of  timber,  sown  now  far  out  on  the  open 
prairie,  with  a  fortnight's  labor  bestowed  upon  it  annually 
for  a  few  years,  would,  in  twenty  years,  be  of  itself  a 
rich  inheritance.  We  would  not,  however,  recommend 
the  using  of  a  quarter  section  by  itself;  we  would  advise 
the  farmer  to  cultivate  a  strip  of  timber,  of  greater  or  less 
width,  as  he  can  afford,  on  the  north  and  east  sides  of  his 
farm.  No  more  land  would  be  used  than  if  it  were  cul- 
tivated in  a  square  piece,  and  in  a  few  years  it  would 
protect  the  fruit  and  crops  from  the  severe  winds  that 
sweep  over  the  naked  prairies. 

SUGAR  MAPLE. 

All  good  citizens,  who  are  desirous  of  doing  good  deeds, 
and  of  being  remembered  by  posterity  hereafter,  we 
would  recommend  to  transplant  a  goodly  number  of  su- 
gar maples  round  their  dwellings.  We  think  all  will 
see  the  propriety  of  giving  their  immediate  attention  to 
the  growing  of  this  most  valuable  tree,  not  only  for  adorn- 
ing our  dwellings,  but  also,  a  large  number  may  be  set 
in  a  suitable  place  on  every  farm.  They,  in  a  few  years, 


308 

will  afford  the  pure  juice  for  sugar,  and  the  best  of  timber 
for  cabinet  and  other  kinds  of  work,  and  all  poor  trees 
may  be  worked  up  for  fuel.  Our  soil  is  rich  and  well 
adapted  for  the  sugar  maple. 

This  tree,  beside  or  around  a  dwelling  is  an  ornament, 
and  also  by  the  road-side.  How  pleasant  and  beautiful 
would  be  the  scenery,  if  this  tree,  in  its  full  growth  and 
splendor,  were  along  each  side  of 'our  roads!  We  have 
seen  the  maple  tree  no  taller  than  a  walking-staff,  become, 
in  fifteen  years,  so  large  as  to  afford  sap  and  sugar.  Be 
not  discouraged  by  looking  forward,  and  say  it  will  be  a 
long  time  before  you  can  have  any  benefit  by  sugar. 
You  must  remember  the  timber  is  growing  every  year, 
and  wait  with  patience,  and  be  assured  the  other  part 
will  not  fail. 

The  sugar  maple,  if  for  transplanting,  should  be  of  the 
size  of  from  one  to  two  inches  in  diameter,  and  from  one 
to  two  feet  above  the  ground.  Select  those  of  smooth  bark, 
looking  young  and  healthy.  We  prefer  short  tops,  but 
if  long  body  and  top,  cut  it  off  so  as  to  leave  the  body  ten 
or  twelve  feet.  The  tree  being  carefully  taken  up  and 
prepared,  is  to  be  placed  in  the  ground  but  one  or  two 
inches  lower  than  it  stood  before.  Care  should  be  taken 
to  place  fresh  earth  round  the  roots,  and  till  well  rooted, 
care  should  be  taken  to  keep  creatures  from  rubbing 
against  them. 

PEACHES. 

Those  who  would  raise  peach  trees  should  prefer  stones 
that  are  raised  in  the  north,  for  if  stones  from  southern 
peaches  be  planted,  the  trees  will  be  tender.  The  peach 
is  a  tender  tree,  and  peculiar  to  warm  climates,  and  in 
cultivating  it  so  far  from  its  native  climate,  care  is  neces- 
sary to  success.  We  must  have  particular  regard  to  soil, 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  309 

location,  and  cultivation ;  but  first  of  all,  we  should  be 
cautious  to  procure  hardy  stocks. 

Some  superior  kinds  of  peaches  are  propagated  from 
the  seed,  saving  the  trouble  of  budding  ;  and  such  kinds 
are  generally  more  hardy,  productive,  and  permanent. 
To  propagate  a  good  variety  in  this  way,  it  must  in  the 
first  place  be  a  seedling,  that  is,  the  tree  must  be  the 
natural  fruit,  without  budding  or  grafting.  Then  the 
tree  must  set  at  a  distance  from  any  other  kind,  lest  it 
mix  in  the  blossom.  Some  very  fine  varieties  of  peaches 
are  now  propagated  in  this  way. 

When  the  meat  is  taken  from  the  stones^  cover  them 
up  in  the  earth,  or  dry  them,  being  careful  that  they  do 
not  mould.  Before  the  ground  freezes,  put  them  in  the 
ground,  a  foot  below  the  surface,  first  a  layer  of  stones, 
then  a  layer  of  earth.  The  object  in  having  them  so  deep 
is  to  prevent  their  cracking  ;  if  they  are  near  the  surface 
they  may  crack — then  they  will  vegetate  in  the  spring 
before  the  ground  is  dry  enough  for  planting;  but  bury 
them  a  foot  deep,  and  they  will  remain  safe  even  till  the 
last  of  May.  In  the  spring,  when  the  land  is  dry  enough 
to  work,  and  is  ploughed  and  prepared  for  the  trees,  take 
up  the  stones  and  crack  them  in  evenings  or  stormy  days 
if  you  please,  and  if  not  ready  to  plant  immediately,  lay 
the  meats  in  a  shallow  vessel,  lay  over  them  a  damp  pa- 
per or  cloth,  and  set  them  in  the  cellar  ;  in  this  way  they 
will  keep  safe  for  several  days.  When  ready,  plant, 
covering  as  you  would  corn,  and  the  seeds  are  as  sure  to 
come  up  as  corn,  if  they  be  good.  The  seed  comes  up 
as  well  when  taken  out  of  the  stones  as  to  have  the  pieces 
of  stones  around  them. 

This  is  a  cheaper  way  in  raising  peach  trees  than  to 
plant  in  the  fall.  For  when  planted  in  the  fall,  the 
stones  are  not  always  opened  by  the  frost,  and  failures 


310 

are  common.  As  the  land  cannot  be  ploughed  in  the 
spring,  there  will  be  much  extra  expense  in  cultivation. 

Peaches  require  a  sandy  loam.  A  fine  sand  should  be 
preferred,  for  if  they  be  on  a  very  dry,  porous  soil,  they 
will  suffer  with  the  drought.  If  the  soil  be  moist,  the  fruit 
will  be  later,  of  inferior  quality,  and  the  wood  will  grow 
later — of  course  it  will  not  ripen  so  as  to  endure  the  cold 
of  winter. 

Moderate  elevations  afford  advantages,  as  in  low  lands 
there  is  more  danger  from  late  frosts  in  the  spring,  and 
in  such  situations  the  frosts  of  winter  are  more  severe ; 
and  as  the  sun  has  more  power  in  low  plains,  provided 
the  soil  be  dry,  the  trees  will  blossom  the  earlier,  which 
is  a  serious  disadvantage,  as  cold  weather  often  succeeds. 

On  high  situations  there  is  more  exposure  to  the  winds, 
and  less  heat  to  perfect  the  fruit;  yet  in  such  places 
pea,ches  often  succeed.  An  eastern  exposure  is  consid- 
ered most  unfavorable.  High  cultivation  is  necessary  to 
productiveness  and  fine  fruit. 

MANAGEMENT  OF  ORCHARDS. 

Before  the  ground  freezes  in  autumn,  dig  the  earth  five 
or  six  inches  deep  around  the  fruit  trees,  and  the  distance 
of  eight  or  ten  inches  from  each  ;  remove  it  to  a  suitable 
place  and  burn  it  with  dry  brush,  or  whatever  combusti- 
ble is  convenient,  to  destroy  the  germ  of  the  canker-worm 
and  other  hurtful  insects.  Mix  this  burnt  earth  with  lime 
or  ashes,  and  a  double  crop  may  be  expected  next  season. 
If  any  farmer  or  gardener  thinks  this  too  much  labor,  let 
him  remember,  that  there  is  nothing  good  under  the  sun 
obtained  without  some  expense,  and  that  everything  in 
nature  has  its  price.  Choice  fruit  is  among  the  greatest 
luxuries  of  the  earth,  but  cannot  be  obtained  without  par- 
ticular attention  to  the  cultivation  of  the  orchard. 


311 

TO    PREVENT   MOSS    ON    TREES. 

An  excellent  plan  for  preventing  young  fruit  trees  from 
becoming  hidebound  and  mossy,  and  for  promoting  their 
health  and  growth,  is  to  take  a  bucket  of  soft  soap,  and  to 
apply  it  with  a  brush  to  the  stem  or  trunk  from  top  to  bot- 
tom ;  this  cleanses  the  bark,  destroys  worms  or  the  eggs 
of  insects ;  and  the  soap  becoming  dissolved  by  rains, 
descends  to  the  roots  and  causes  the  tree  to  grow  vigor- 
ously. A  boy  can  make  this  wholesome  application  to 
several  hundred  trees  in  a  few  hours.  If  soft  soap  was 
applied  to  peach  trees  in  the  early  part  of  April  to  remove 
or  destroy  any  eggs  or  worms  that  might  have  been  de- 
posited in  the  autumn,  and  again  in  the  early  part  of  June, 
when  the  insect  is  supposed  to  begin  its  summer  deposite 
of  eggs,  it  is  believed  we  should  hear  less  of  the  de- 
struction of  peach  trees  by  worms.  But  the  application 
should  not  be  suspended  for  a  single  season,  on  the  sup- 
position that  the  enemy  had  relaxed  in  his  hostility.  Try 
it  this  spring,  and  communicate  the  result  with  all  the 
circumstances. 

TO    RESTORE    DISEASED    PEACH    TREES. 

Apply  salt  and  saltpetre,  combined  in  the  proportion  of 
one  part  of  saltpetre  to  eight  parts  of  salt ;  one  half  pound 
of  this  mixture  to  a  tree  seven  years  old  and  upward,  to 
be  applied  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground  around,  and  in 
immediate  contact  with  the  tree  ;  this  will  destroy  the 
worm,  but  to  more  effectually  preserve  the  tree,  sow  this 
mixture  over  any  orchard,  at  the  rate  of  two  bushels  to 
the  acre.  The  size  of  the  fruit  is  increased,  and  the  fla- 
vor very  greatly  improved,  the  worm  destroyed,  and  the 
yellaws  prevented. 

It  has  been  mentioned  by  writers  on  the  culture  of  the 


peach  tree,  that  hot  water  poured  round  the  trunk  at  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  will  destroy  the  worm. 

Soot  has  been  found  excellent  for  this  tree.  In  one 
case  that  has  come  to  our  knowledge,  its  pale  leaves  were 
changed  into  a  dark  green  by  this  application  round  its 
roots ;  and  though  the  effect  may  in  part  have  been  cau- 
sed by  the  destruction  of  the  worm,  it  has  doubtless  acted 
also  as  a  manure.  Those  who  have  stove-pipes  to  clean 
and  peach  trees  to  cultivate,  should  save  the  soot  for  this 
purpose. 

One  of  the  most  deplorable  conditions  that  a  peach  tree 
can  be  placed  in,  is  to  stand  in  a  meadow  or  grass  ground 
which  is  annually  mowed.  Sometimes  we  see  them  in 
door-yards,  where  the  grass  grows  strong,  but  where  nei- 
ther pigs,  nor  sheep,  nor  cattle,  are  allowed  to  enter.  A 
half  starved  tree,  however,  is  no  ornament  in  front  of  a 
house ;  but  we  will  not  find  fault  without  proposing  a 
remedy.  Cultivate  a  circle  round  each  tree,  of  two  or 
three  feet  in  diameter ;  and  hoe  in  manure  from  the  sta- 
ble, the  hog-pen,  the  hen-roost,  the  leach-tub,  or  the  wood 
pile,  not  forgetting  the  stove-pipe,  and  the  tree  will  soon 
compensate  for  the  labor  by  its  beauty  and  productive- 


THE    CULTIVATION 


OF 


DYER'S    MADDER; 

'*  /v",  *':/  IF  , 

CURING 

* 

*'••  'If    ' 

PROVISIONS  FOR  THE  ENGLISH  MARKET; 

" 
LARD  OIL,  HOPS,  ETC.  ETC. 


14 


CHAPTER    IX 

CULTIVATION   OF   DYER'S   MADDER. 

THE  quantity  of  madder  consumed  annually  in  the 
United  States,  and  imported  from  abroad,  is  perfectly  as- 
tonishing to  those  who  have  given  no  attention  to  the  sub- 
ject. Unfortunately,  our  public  records  do  not  give  very 
exact  information  on  the  subject;  but  Mr.  Ellsworth,  as 
the  nearest  approximation  he  could  obtain,  gives  the 
amount  Bsfiee  thousand  tons  !  Estimating  this  at  the  low 
average  price  of  ten  cents  per  pound,  it  makes  the  round 
sum  of  one  million  of  dollars  paid  annually  to  foreign 
countries  for  an  article  that  can  be  produced  as  good  and 
as  cheap  at  home,  were  the  information  necessary  to  its 
production  generally  diffused  among  farmers  and  others 
interested  in  the  subject. 

The  cultivation  of  madder  has  heretofore  been  repre- 
sented  as  a  tedious  and  laborious  operation,  requiring 
much  care  and  skill,  as  well  as  outlay  of  capital.  The 
directions  have  been  mainly  gathered  from  foreign  works, 
detailing  the  methods  practiced  by  the  plodding  Dutch  in 
Holland  and  Germany.  These  accounts  have  appeared 
so  frightful  to  Americans,  that  none  of  them  have  dared 
to  undertake  the  business  ;  and  Yankee  enterprise  and 
labor-saving  ingenuity  have  never  been  exercised  upon  it. 
It  is  true,  the  crop  requires  three  or  four  years  to  arrive 
at  maturity,  and  needs  considerable  labor,  and  some 
knowledge ;  but  the  quantity  of  land  it  occupies,  and  the 
amount  of  labor  it  requires,  is  far  less  in  proportion  to 
the  value  of  the  crop  than  those  of  any  other  farm-crop 
that  can  be  named. 


316  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

These  assertions  are  fully  corroborated  by  the  experi- 
ence of  an  enterprising  American  farmer,  Mr.  Joseph 
Swift,  of  Erie  county,  Ohio,  who  has  been  engaged  in  the 
culture  of  madder  for  five  years  past.  A  detailed  account 
of  Mr.  Swft's  mode  of  culture  and  its  results,  was  obtained 
at  his  residence  last  winter,  by  the  writer  of  this  essay,  and 
published  in  the  New  Genesee  Farmer  for  March,  1843. 

From  this  account  it  will  be  seen,  that  after  having  in- 
formed himself  on  the  subject,  and  becoming  satisfied  that 
the  business  was  practicable  and  profitable,  he  at  once 
planted  nine  acres.  This  he  allowed  to  grow  four  seasons, 
and  the  crop  was  harvested  and  sold  in  the  fall  of  1842. 
The  following  are  some  of  the  results  of  his  experience. 
The  product  of  his  best  land  was  at  the  rate  of  2,000lbs. 
per  acre,  and  he  is  certain  that,  with  his  present  knowledge, 
he  can  obtain  3,000  Ibs.  per  acre — which  is  more  than 
the  best  average  crops  of  Holland  or  Germany.  The 
quality  was  superior  to  the  average  of  imported  madder. 

The  labor  required,  including  the  whole  time,  with  the 
digging,  cleaning,  threshing,  etc.  was  from  eighty  to  one 
hundred  days'  work  per  acre.  The  outlay  for  buildings, 
fixtures,  etc.  did  not  exceed,  in  all,  fifty  dollars. 

The  value  of  the  crop  was  at  the  rate  of  fifteen  cents 
per  pound,  at  which  price  he  sold  most  of  it — notwithstand- 
ing the  circumstances  of  its  being  unknown  to  purchasers, 
and  all  the  prejudice  that  usually  exists  in  such  cases. 

The  result,  then,  in  figures,  fairly  stated,  stands  thus, 
for  an  acre  of  good  land  properly  managed  : 

By  2,000  Ibs.  of  madder,  at  15  cents  per  Ib $300  00 

Contra — To  100  days'  work,  mostly  boys,  at  75  cts.  per 

day $75  00 

Use  of  land,  4  years,  at  $4  per  year 16  00 

Grinding,  packing,  etc 9  00 

100  00 


Reaving  a  nett  profit  per  acre,  of. $10  00 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  317 

Mr.  Swift  was  one  of  the  earliest  settlers  of  that  section 
of  the  country,  having  resided  nearly  thirty  years  on  the 
farm  he  now  occupies,  which  consists  of  about  400  acres 
of  choice  land,  mostly  alluvial,  in  the  valley  of  the  Ver- 
million  river,  seven  miles  from  Lake  Erie.  At  my  re- 
quest, he  furnished  me  with  the  following  practical  direc- 
tions for  the  cultivation  of  madder,  which  he  remarked 
must  be  understood  as  intended  for  those  who  wish  to 
cultivate  only  a  few  acres,  and  cannot  afford  much  outlay 
of  capital.  Those  who  wish  to  engage  in  the  business  on 
an  extensive  scale,  would  need  to  adopt  a  somewhat  dif- 
ferent practice : 

Soil  and  preparation. — The  soil  should  be  a  deep,  rich, 
sandy  loam,  free  from  weeds,  roots,  stones,  etc.,  containing 
a  good  portion  of  vegetable  earth.  Alluvial  "bottom" 
land  is  the  most  suitable  ;  but  it  must  not  be  wet.  If  old 
upland  is  used,  it  should  receive  a  heavy  coating  of  veg- 
etable earth,  (from  decayed  wood  and  leaves.)  The  land 
should  be  ploughed  very  deep  in  the  fall,  and  early  in  the 
spring  apply  about  one  hundred  loads  of  well-rotted 
manure  per  acre,  spread  evenly,  and  ploughed  in  deeply ; 
then  harrow  till  quite  fine  and  free  from  lumps.  Next, 
plough  the  land  into  beds  four  feet  wide,  leaving  alleys  be- 
tween, three  feet  wide,  then  harrow  the  beds  with  a  fine 
light  harrow,  or  rake  them  by  hand  so  as  to  leave  them 
smooth,  and  even  with  the  alleys  ;  they  are  then  ready 
for  planting. 

Preparing  Sets  and  planting. — Madder  sets,  or  seed 
roots,  are  best  selected  when  the  crop  is  dug  in  the  fall. 
The  horizontal  uppermost  roots  (with  eyes)  are  the  kind 
to  be  used  ;  these  should  be  separated  from  the  bottom 
roots,  and  buried  in  sand  in  a  cellar  or  pit.  If  not  done 
in  the  fall,  the  sets  may  be  dug  early  in  the  spring,  before 
they  begin  to  sprout.  'They  should  be  cut  or  broken  into 


318  THE 

pieces,  containing  from  two  to  five  eyes  each  ;  i.  e.  three 
to  four  inches  long.  The  time  for  planting  is  as  early  in 
spring  as  the  ground  can  be  got  in  good  order,  and  severe 
frosts  are  over,  which,  in  this  climate,  is  usually  about  the 
middle  of  April.  With  the  beds  prepared  as  directed, 
stretch  a  line  lengthwise  the  bed,  and  with  the  corner  of 
a  hoe  make  a  drill  two  inches  deep  along  each  edge  and 
down  the  middle,  so  as  to  give  three  rows  to  each  bed, 
about  two  feet  apart.  Into  these  drills  drop  the  sets,  ten 
inches  apart,  covering  them  two  inches  deep.  Eight  or 
ten  bushels  of  sets  are  requisite  for  an  acre. 

After  Culture. — As  soon  as  the  madder  plants  can  be 
seen,  the  ground  should  be  carefully  hoed,  so  as  to  destroy 
the  weeds,  and  not  injure  the  plants  ;  and  the  hoeing  and 
weeding  must  be  repeated  as  often  as  weeds  make  their 
appearance.  If  any  of  the  sets  have  failed  to  grow,  the 
vacancies  should  be  filled  by  taking  up  parts  of  the  strong- 
est roots  and  transplanting  them  ;  this  is  best  done  in  June. 
As  soon  as  the  madder  plants  are  ten  or  twelve  inches 
high,  the  tops  are  to  be  bent  down  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  all  except  the  tip  end,  covered  with  earth 
shoveled  from  the  middle  of  the  alleys.  Bend  the  shoots 
outward  and  inward,  in  every  direction,  so  as  in  time  to 
fill  all  the  vacant  space  on  the  beds,  and  about  one  foot 
on  each  side.  After  the  first  time  covering,  repeat  the 
weeding  when  necessary,  and  run  a  single  horse  plough 
through  the  alleys  several  times  to  keep  the  earth  clean 
and  mellow.  As  soon  as  the  plants  again  become  ten  or 
twelve  inches  high,  bend  down  and  cover  them  as  before, 
repeating  the  operation  as  often  as  necessary,  which  is 
commonly  three  times  the  first  season.  The  last  time 
may  be  as  late  as  September,  or  later  if  no  frosts  occur. 
By  covering  the  tops  in  this  manner,  they  change  to  roots, 
and  the  design  is  to  fill  the  ground  as  full  of  roots  as  possi- 
ble. When  the  vacant  spaces  are  all  full,  there  will  be 


01  Q 

THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK. 
bllt  little  chance  for  weeds  to  grow  ;   but  all  that  appear 


11  Vhen  iSSa^SSUi  ^  done  between 

K—?  £  feeding  until  the  whole  is 

.  ««l  Drying.-^  soon  as  possible  after  dig- 
roots  to  sorne  running  stream  to  be  washed. 


320  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

If  there  is  no  running  stream  convenient,  it  can  be  done 
-t  a  pump.  Take  large,  round  sieves,  24  or  3  feet  in 
diameter,  with  the  wire  about  as  fine  as  wheat  .sieves  ;  or 
if  these  cannot  be  had,  get  from  a  hardware  store  sufficient 
screen-wire  of  the  right  fineness,  and  make  frames  or 
boxes  about  two  and  a  half  feet  long  and  the  width  of  the 
wire,  on  the  bottom  of  which  nail  the  wire.  In  these 
sieves  or  boxes,  put  half  a  bushel  of  roots  at  a  time  and 
stjr  them  about  in  the  water,  pulling  the  bunches  apart 
so  as  to  wash  them  clean  ;  then,  having  a  platform  at  hand, 
lay  them  on  it  to  dry.  (To  make  the  platform,  take  two 
or  three  common  boards,  so  as  to  be  about  four  feet  in 
width,  and  nail  elects  across  the  under  side.)  On  these 
spread  the  roots  about  two  inches  thick  for  drying  in  the 
sun.  Carry  the  platforms  to  a  convenient  place,  not  far 
from  the  house,  and  place  them  side  by  side,  in  rows  east 
and  west,  and  with  their  ends  north  and  south,  leaving 
room  to  walk  between  the  rows.  Elevate  the  south  ends 
of  the  platforms  about  eighteen  inches,  and  the  north  ends 
about  six  inches  from  the  ground,  putting  poles  or  sticks 
to  support  them — this  will  greatly  facilitate  drying.  After 
the  second  or  third  day  drying,  the  madder  must  be  pro- 
tected from  the  dews  at  night,  and  from  rain,  by  placing 
the  platforms  one  upon  another  to  a  convenient  height, 
and  covering  the  uppermost  one  with  boards.  Spread 
them  out  again  in  the  morning,  or  as  soon  as  danger  is 
over.  Five  or  six  days  of  ordinarily  fine  weather  will  dry 
the  madder  sufficiently,  when  it  may  be  put  away  till  it  is 
convenient  to  kiln-dry  and  grind  it. 

Kiln-drying. — The  size  and  mode  of  constructing  the 
kiln  may  be  varied  to  suit  circumstances.  The  following 
is  a  very  cheap  plan,  and  sufficient  to  dry  one  ton  of  roots 
at  a  time.  Place  four  strong  posts  in  the  ground,  twelve 
feet  apart  one  way,  arid  eighteen  the  other ;  the  front  two 
fourteen  feet  high,  and  the  others  eighteen ;  put  girts  across 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  321 

the  bottom,  middle  and  top  ;  and  nail  boards  perpendicu- 
larly on  the  outside  as  for  a  common  barn.  The  boards 
must  be  well  seasoned,  and  all  cracks  or  holes  should  be 
plastered  or  otherwise  stopped  up.  Make  a  shed-roof  of 
common  boards.  In  the  inside,  put  upright  standards  about 
five  feet  apart,  with  cross-pieces,  to  support  the  scaffolding. 
The  first  cross-pieces  to  be  four  feet  from  the  floor;  the 
next  two  feet  higher,  and  so  on  to  the  top.  On  these  cross- 
pieces  lay  small  poles  about  six  feet  long  and  two  inches 
thick,  four  or  five  inches  apart.  On  these  scaffolds  the 
madder  is  to  be  spread  nine  inches  thick.  A  floor  is  laid 
at  the  bottom  to  keep  all  dry  and  clean.  When  the  kiln 
is  filled,  take  six  or  eight  small  kettles  or  hand-furnaces, 
and  place  them  four  or  five  feet  apart  on  the  floor,  (first 
securing  it  from  fire  with  bricks  or  stones,)  and  make  fires 
in  them  with  charcoal,  being  careful  not  to  make  any  of 
the  fires  so  large  as  to  scorch  the  madder  over  them.  A 
person  must  be  in  constant  attendance  to  watch  and  re- 
plenish the  fires.  The  heat  will  ascend  through  the 
whole,  and  in  ten  or  twelve  hours  it  will  allbe  sufficiently 
dried,  which  is  known  by  its  becoming  brittle  like  pipe 
stems. 

Breaking  and  Grinding. — Immediately  after  being  dried, 
the  .madder  must  be  taken  to  the  barn  and  threshed  with 
flails,  or  broken  by  machinery,  (a  mill  might  easily  be 
constructed  for  this  purpose,)  so  that  it  will  feed  in  a 
common  grist-mill.  If  it  is  not  broken  and  ground  imme- 
diately, it  will  gather  dampness  so  as  to  prevent  its  grind- 
ing freely.  Any  common  grist-mill  can  grind  madder 
properly.  When  ground  finely  it  is  fit  for  use,  and  may 
be  packed  in  barrels  like  flour  for  market. 

Amount  and  value  of  Product,  etc. — Mr.  Swift  mea- 
sured off  a  part  of  his  ground,  and  carefully  weighed  the 
product  when  dried,  which  he  found  to  be  over  two  thou- 
sand pounds  per  acre,  notwithstanding  the  seasons  were 
14* 


322 

mostly  very  dry  and  unfavorable.  With  his  present 
knowledge  of  the  business,  he  is  confident  that  he  can 
obtain  at  least  three  thousand  pounds  per  acre,  which  is 
said  to  be  more  than  is  often  obtained  in  Germany.  The 
whole  amount  of  labor  he  estimates  at  from  eighty  to  one 
hundred  days'  work  per  acre.  The  value  of  the  crop, 
at  the  usual  wholesale  price,  (about  fifteen  cents  per 
pound,)  from  three  to  four  hundred  dollars.  In  foreign 
countries  it  is  customary  to  make  several  qualities  of  the 
madder,  which  is  done  by  sorting  the  roots  ;  but  as  only 
one  quality  is  required  for  the  western  market,  Mr.  Swift 
makes  but  one,  and  that  is  found  superior  to  most  of  the 
imported,  and  finds  a  ready  sale. 


CHAPTER    XI. 

COMMUNICATED  BY  C.  T.  PETERS,  ESQ. 
CURING   PROVISIONS    FOR    THE     ENGLISH   MARKET. 

THE  revision  of  the  tariff  upon  provisions,  by  the  Eng- 
lish government,  will  have  a  much  more  important  bear- 
ing upon  the  agricultural  interest  of  this  country,  than 
any,  and  indeed  all  the  changes  that  could  be  safely  made 
in  their  corn-laws.  At  present  prices,  even,  without  any 
change  in  the  duty,  both  beef  and  pork  could  be  sent  to 
the  English  market  at  a  profit,  if  it  had  been  cured  in  the 
same  manner,  and  put  up  in  the  same  kind  of  packages, 
which  has  been  so  long  the  custom  in  that  country.  It  is 
useless  to  expect  a  whole  nation  to  change  their  customs 
to  suit  our  views ;  and  if  we  would  a*  ail  ourselves  of 
their  markets,  we  must  conform  to  their  customs  and 
prejudices  ;  if  the  fixed  and  unchanging  habits  of  a  whole 
nation  must  be  called  so. 

Foreseeing  that,  at  no  distant  day,  the  provision  busi- 
ness must  become  the  great  business  of  this  country,  while 
in  Europe,  last  winter,  I  endeavored  to  make  myself  per- 
fectly familiar  with  everything  connected  with  the  provi- 
sion trade.  I  visited  the  great  curing  and  packing  estab- 
lishments in  Ireland,  and  made  myself  master  of  the  whole 
subject  of  curing  and  packing  provisions.  I  then  visited 
the  great  markets  of  Europe,  Liverpool  and  London,  and, 
under  the  instruction  of  some  of  the  oldest  and  most  re- 
spectable provision  merchants  of  those  cities,  endeavored 
to  make  myself  thoroughly  acquainted  with  everything 
relative  to  the  wants  and  peculiar  shades  of  the  different 


324 

markets.  While  abroad,  1  gave  you  the  result  of  my 
observations  relative  to  butter  and  cheese.  I  now  give 
you,  in  as  condensed  a  form  as  possible,  the  best  method 
of  curing  and  preparing  for  the  English  market,  beef  and 
pork,  and  hope  it  will  not  be  without  interest  and  profit  to 
your  numerous  readers,  especially  in  the  west  and  south- 
west* 

PORK. 

There  are  various  kinds  or  divisions  of  pork — depend- 
ing upon  the  size  and  quality  of  the  hog,  and  the  market 
for  which  it  is  intended.  There  is  bacon  singed  and 
scalded,  which  is  divided  into  whole-side  bacon  or  mid- 
dles. Barreled  pork  is  divided  into  prime  and  bacon 
mess,  and  is  put  up  into  barrels  and  tierces. 

In  some  parts  of  England,  they  will  not  purchase  or  use 
scalded  bacon  ;  in  others,  they  make  no  difference.  In 
this  country,  the  market  requires  but  one  kind  ;  and  there 
is  but  one  kind  that  can  be  shipped  to  any  profit,  and  that 
is  known  as  tierce  middles. 

Whole-side  bacon  is  prepared  by  cutting  out  the  chine 
or  back-bone,  cutting  the  head  off  as  close  at  the  ears  as 
possible,  and  the  legs  at  the  knee-joint.  The  ribs  are 
broken  by  passing  a  fine  saw  across  them  two  or  three 
times,  the  shoulder-blade  taken  out,  and  the  whole  side 
trimmed  and  made  to  look  smooth  and  sightly.  If  it  is 
from  a  heavy  hog,  the  knife  is  run  into  the  ham  so  as  to 
enable  the  salt  to  penetrate  readily  to  the  knuckle-joint, 
and  sometimes  about  the  fore-shoulder.  From  the  cut- 
ting-block, it  ,is  passed  to  the  rubbing  table.  Here  all 
the  holes  are  filled  with  salt,  and  salt  is  spread  freely 
over  it,  and  rubbed  in  by  men  with  a  kind  of  iron  glove 
upon  their  hands.  After  the  salt  has  been  well  rubbed 
in,  the  sides  are  piled  up  on  the  floor,  in  layers  of  from  six 
to  ten  deep,  flesh  side  up,  salt  being  freely  put  between 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  325 

each  side.  During  the  process  of  curing,  the  sides  are 
repacked  several  times,  depending  upon  the  weather — 
sometimes  every  other  day.  In  about  ten  days,  the  meat 
is  sufficiently  cured  for  market.  The  salt  is  brushed  off 
clean  with  a  twig  broom ;  the  side  again  carefully  trim- 
med, scraped,  and  smoothed  down,  by  beating  it  with  a 
flat  board,  and  then  passed  to  the  baling  or  packing-room. 
Five  sides  are  put  together,  and  a  thin  layer  of  salt  be- 
tween each,  and  then  sewed  up  in  a  coarse  kind  of  bag- 
ging manufactured  for  the  purpose.  In  this  condition,  it 
is  shipped  for  the  London  market ;  and,  with  a  little  care, 
will  keep  in  good  order  for  months.  Hams  and  shoulders 
are  cured  in  the  same  manner,  except  some  use  saltpetre 
with  the  salt  when  first  rubbed  in.  Many  prefer  their 
bacon  and  hams  dried  rather  than  smoked ;  but,  when 
smoked,  great  care  is  taken  to  keep  the  meat  of  as  white 
a  color  as  possible.  To  do  this  well,  the  meat  should  be 
quite  dry  when  hung  up  in  the  smoke.  Competition  is 
very  keen  among  the  Irish  and  Continental  provision 
curers,  and  great  skill  is  used  to  make  the  best  article. 
Hence,  the  utmost  pains  are  taken  in  curing  and  putting 
up  their  bacon,  hams,  and  dried  beef;  and  many  of  the 
most  intelligent  men  in  the  country  are  among  the  pro- 
vision merchants  of  Ireland  and  Hamburgh.  Tierce 
middles  are  the  middle  or  broadside  of  the  hog,  between 
the  ham  and  shoulder.  It  is  cured  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  whole  side,  but,  in  preparing  for  the  English  mar- 
ket, I  should  recommend  to  put  it  up  clear  of  all  bone, 
and  should  therefore  take  out  not  only  the  chine,  but  all 
the  ribs.  •  It  is  put  up  in  tierces  holding  about  three  hun- 
dred pounds,  and  treated  the  same  as  salted  pork. 

A  profitable  trade  might  be  carried  on  between  west- 
ern New-York  and  the  New-England  States,  during  the 
fall  and  winter,  in  baled  bacon,  if  freight  could  be  carried 
over  the  Utica  and  Schenectady  railroad,  at  reasonable 


326  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

rates  ;  and  we  should  not  be  compelled  to  keep  our  pork 
or  beef  on  hand  until  the  opening  of  navigation  in  the 
spring. 

Pork  is  cut  into  four  or  six-pound  pieces,  according  to 
the  size  of  the  hog.  Where  the  carcass  weighs  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  and  under,  it  is  cut  into  four-pound  pieces  ; 
large  hogs  are  cut  into  six-pound  pieces.  The  hog  is 
first  split  through  the  back-bone  in  half;  then  passed  to 
the  trimming-block,  where  the  half  head  and  legs  are  cut 
off,  the  leaf  and  tender-loin  taken  out,  and  the  whole  side 
split  lengthwise  through  both  the  shoulder  and  ham,  and 
as  near  the  centre  as  is  consistent  with  the  proper  shape 
and  size  of  the  different  pieces.  From  the  trimming- 
block,  the  strips  pass  to  the  scales,  where  the  weight  is 
ascertained,  and  called  to  the  man  at  the  cutting-block, 
who  divides  each  strip  into  the  requisite  sized  pieces. 
Both  the  splitting  and  piercing  require  skill  and  judg- 
ment, as  much  depends  upon  having  the  pieces  well  and 
sizably  cut.  From  thence  it  goes  to  the  rubbing-table, 
where  each  piece  is  thoroughly  rubbed  in  salt  in  the  same 
manner  as  in  curing  bacon.  After  the  salt  has  been 
well  rubbed  in,  it  is  put  into  pickling  tubs,  holding  from 
three  to  five  hundred  pounds,  well  covered  with  salt,  but 
no  water  or  brine  added.  Here  they  remain  from  eight 
to  ten  days.  It  is  then  taken  to  the  washing  trough  or 
vat,  where  each  piece  is  thoroughly  washed  in  clean 
brine,  trimmed,  and  tormented,  as  the  process  of  trying  is 
called.  The  tormentor  is  an  instrument  of  wood  or  metal, 
the  size  of  a  small  dish,  and  is  thrust  into  the  lean  parts 
.of  each  piece,  to  ascertain  that  it  is  properly  cured  and 
free  from  taint.  It  is  then  messed  and  weighed,  so  that 
the  requisite  number  of  pieces  shall  weigh  exactly  the 
number  of  pounds  for  the  barrel  or  tierce.  It  is  then  put 
up  in  the  proper  package,  and  freely  salted  while  packing, 
and  saltpetre  added  at  the  rate  of  a  common  wine-glass 


327 

full  to  the  one  hundred  pounds.  The  last  layer  is 
pounded  in  by  a  heavy  iron  weight,  and  capped  with 
coarse  salt.  It  is  then  passed  to  the  cooper,  who  puts  in 
the  head,  and  puts  on  to  the  barrel  one,  and  on  to  the 
tierce  at  least  three  iron  hoops  at  each  end.  The  pack- 
age is  then  filled  with  clean  strong  brine,  bunged  tight, 
branded,  and  is  then  ready  for  market. 

The  great  utility  of  this  method  of  curing  consists  in 
the  certainty  of  the  meat  keeping  in  good  condition  for 
years  in  any  climate.  The  blood  gets  all  drained  out  of 
the  meat  before  it  is  barreled,  and  hence  one  great  cause 
of  injury  is  avoided.  I  saw  pork  and  beef  which  had 
been  two  years  in  the  barrel,  which  was  as  sweet  as 
when  first  put  up,  and  the  brine  was  perfectly  clear.  A 
friend  in  London  unpacked  several  packages  of  Irish  and 
Hamburgh  cured  provisions,  by  the  side  of  American. 
The  contrast  was  anything  but  flattering  to  our  taste  or 
skill.  I  could  very  readily  see  why  our  beef  and  pork 
bore  so  bad  a  name  in  the  market,  and  was  so  much  of  a 
drug.  The  meat  was  not  inferior,  but  it  was  badly 
messed,  worse  cut  and  cured,  and  the  brine  nearly  as  red 
as  blood,  and  presenting,  by  the  side  of  the  other,  not  a 
very  palatable  appearance.  The  large  hogs,  or  heavy 
pork,  which  is  uniformly  cut  in  six-pound  pieces,  is 
packed  in  tierces,  and  is  then  called  India  or  navy  pork. 
The  four- pound  pieces  are  put  in  barrels. 

A  barrel  of  prime  pork  should  contain  from  twenty  five 
to  thirty  pieces,  cut  from  the  ribs,  loins,  chines,  and  belly 
pieces,  all  lying  between  the  ham  and  shoulder,  forming 
what  is  called  the  broadside  or  middle.  Three  hands 
and  two  hind-leg  pieces,  or  three  hind-leg  pieces  and  two 
hands,  and  fifteen  or  twenty  pieces  from  other  parts  of 
the  hog,  except  no  part  of  the  head.  The  meat  must  be 
of  prime  quality,  firm,  and  well-fattened,  cut  into  four- 
pound  pieces,  exactly  fifty  to  the  barrel,  and  weigh  not 


328  THE  FARMER'S  AAD 

less  than  two  hundred  pounds  nett,  and  must  have  a  good 
capping  of  St.  Ubes,  or  other  coarse  salt.  This  is  indis- 
pensable. Bacon  mess  pork  is  so  called  when  the  full 
proportion  of  prime  pieces  in  prime  mess  is  withheld ; 
there  is,  therefore,  various  classes  of  bacon  pork.  Tier- 
ces  contain  the  same  number,  that  is,  fifty  pieces  of  six 
pounds,  and  the  same  rules  as  to  messing  are  to  be  ob- 
served as  in  the  barrel.  The  tierce  must  have  not  less 
than  three  hundred  pounds,  and  well  capped  with  salt. 
It  is  usual  to  put  in  fifty-two  pieces.  In  bacon  mess,  the 
number  of  prime  mess  pieces  should  be  marked  upon  the 
head.  No  part  of  the  hog's  head  is  allowed  in  any  in- 
stance. 

BEEF 

Is  uniformly  cut  into  eight-pound  pieces,  and  cured,  in 
all  particulars,  precisely  as  pork,  except  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  saltpetre  is  used  in  packing.  Beef  is  almost  en- 
tirely packed  in  tierces.  For  export,  tierces  only  should 
be  used. 

A  tierce  of  prime  India  beef  should  contain  forty-two 
pieces,  eight  pounds  each,  and  weigh  not  less  than  three 
hundred  and  thirty- six  pounds  nett.  It  should  be  made 
from  well-fed  bullocks,  and  contain  thirty-two  pieces  of 
loins,  flanks,  rumps,  plates,  buttocks,  and  briskets ;  ten 
pieces,  consisting  of  four  chines,  two  mouse  buttocks,  two 
shells  of  rumps,  two  pieces  cut  close  up  to  the  neck,  with 
bone  taken  out;  no  shins,  thigh-bones,  or  necks.  To  be 
well  salted,  and  capped  with  St.  Ubes  or  other  coarse 
salt. 

A  tierce  of  prime  Mess  beef  should  contain  thirty-eight 
pieces  of  eight  pounds,  and  weigh  not  less  than  three 
hundred  and  four  pounds  nett.  It  should  be  made  from 
prime  fat  cows  or  heifers,  twenty-eight  pieces  of  prime, 
from  loins  and  chines,  with  one  rib  in  each,  flanks,  rumps, 


320 

plates,  briskets,  and  buttocks,  with  ten  coarse  pieces, 
consisting  of  two  neck-pieces,  not  the  scrag,  two  thighs 
or  buttock  bones,  with  some  meat  to  them,  two  shells  of 
rumps,  two  or  even  four  chines,  not  cut  too  close  to  the 
neck,  and  two  shoulder  pieces  with  part  of  blade  bone  in 
them,  well  salted  and  capped  with  St.  Ubes  or  other 
coarse  salt.  The  tierces,  whether  for  beef  or  pork,  must 
be  made  of  well-seasoned  oak,  with  eight  wooden,  and 
three  iron  hoops  on  each  end. 

•  No  pains  to  be  spared  in  preparing  and  putting  up,  as 
the  neat  and  tasty  appearance  of  the  packages  will  in- 
sure a  more  ready  sale,  than  if  put  up  in  a  slovenly 
manner. 

There  is  much  that  one  cannot  well  make  intelligible 
upon  paper,  and  can  only  be  learned  by  personal  obser- 
vation. I  have  endeavored  to  communicate  enough  to 
enable  any  experienced  butcher  or  packer  to  prepare  pro- 
visions  for  a  foreign  market,  if  desirous  to  do  so  ;  and  the 
method  described  is  the  one  in  general  use  in  Europe, 
and,  if  adopted  in  this  country,  will  enable  us  to  enter  the 
English  market  in  successful  competition  with  the  Con- 
tinent.  I  trust  the  season  will  not  pass,  without  finding 
several  establishments  preparing  and  curing  provisions 
according  to  the  Irish  method. 

T.  C.  PETERS. 

Darien,  Gcnesee,  Co.,  New-York. 


CHAPTER    XII. 


LARD   OIL,    ETC. 

MUCH  interest  has  been  felt  in  the  subject  of  oil  from 
lard,  and  the  almost  daily  inquiries  respecting  its  process 
of  manufacture,  and  its  close  connection  with  the  question 
of  disposing  of  our  agricultural  products,  forms  a  reason 
for  giving  it  an  extended  consideration.  Complete  suc- 
cess has  attended  the  enterprise.  Several  large  factories 
for  the  manufacture  of  this  oil,  have  been  some  time  in 
operation  in  Cincinnati,  and  thousands  of  gallons  are  daily 
prepared  for  home  consumption  and  exportation.  It  is 
also  carried  on  at  Cleveland,  Ohio ;  Chicago,  Illinois ; 
Burlington,  Iowa  ;  Hannibal,  Missouri ;  and  other  places 
both  in  the  Western  and  the  Atlantic  states. 

It  is  considered  much  superior  to  olive  or  sperm  oil,  for 
machinery,  and  for  the  manufacture  of  woollens,  etc. 
It  can  be  furnished  also  at  half  the  price,  and  therefore  it 
will  doubtless  supersede  the  article  of  import.  As  it  con- 
tains less  gelatine  than  other  oils,  it  is  found  much  better 
for  combing  wool.  Repeated  experiments,  too,  have  shown 
that  for  the  purpose  of  combustion,  no  oil  is  superior.  It 
is  important,  in  trying  it  with  this  view,  to  obtain  a  good 
article,  manufactured  from  good  lard,  and  not  from  the 
dark-burned,  which  creates  smoke  and  clogs  the  flame. 
For  want  of  sufficient  care  in  this  respect,  some  have  no 
doubt  met  with  disappointment  in  their  attempts  to  substi- 
tute this  oil  for  sperm  oil  in  the  lamps. 

The  following  are  given  as  the  relative  constituents  ol 
lard  oil  and  sperm  oil,  in  one  hundred  parts  of  either : 


331 

Carbon.        Hydrogen.        Oxygen. 

Lard  oil 79.03          11.422        9.548 

Sperm  oil 79.05         11.6  8.9 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  difference  in  carbon  is  only 
3.00 ;  about  the  same  in  hydrogen ;  while  in  oxygen  it 
is  about  4.10  in  favor  of  the  lard  oil.  The  large  quanti- 
ty of  carbon  proves  that  it  may  be  relied  on  as  a  material 
for  giving  light,  as  it  is  well  ascertained  that  whenever 
carbon  predominates  in  an  animal  oil  the  article  is  capable 
of  a  high  degree  of  luminous  power.  Experiments  have 
been  made  which  resulted  in  favor  of  lard  oil.  About 
sixty  pounds  in  a  hundred  of  good  lard,  in  tallow,  only 
twenty-eight  is  oil ;  and  the  processes  of  manufacture  re- 
sorted to,  show  that  it  may  be  made  a  profitable  business. 
Large  orders  have  already  been  executed  at  the  West  for 
this  oil,  to  be  used  in  the  Eastern  states. 

The  importance  of  this  application  of  lard,  can  scarcely 
yet  be  realized.  Vast  quantities  of  the  oil  can  be  manu- 
factured at  the  West.  Indeed,  there  is  hardly  any  as- 
signable limit  to  the  power  of  production  of  the  article, 
so  that,  while  the  demand  continues,  the  business  may  be 
conducted  profitably.  The  immense  herds  of  swine  which 
can  be  suffered  to  range  over  the  lands  adapted  to  them, 
and  gather  their  food  from  mast,  as  well  as  the  surplus  of 
corn,  wheat,  potatoes,  etc.,  on  which  they  may  be  sus- 
tained, admit  of  the  manufacture  being  carried  on  to  al- 
most any  extent. 

The  proportion  of  lard  to  the  whole  hog  is  about  sixty 
per  cent.,  after  taking  out  the  hams  and  shoulders,  or  tak- 
ing out  the  hams  only  ;  the  estimate  for  hogs  of  the  best 
breeds,  and  so  fed  as  to  produce  the  greatest  quantity  of 
fat,  is  seventy  per  cent.  As  the  object  is  not  in  this  case 
to  make  pork  for  food,  the  objection  against  those  species 
of  nuts,  and  other  modes  of  feeding,  which  render  the  an- 
imal more  gross  and  oily,  is  obviated ;  and  it  has  been 


332 

proposed  to  feed  out  oil  cake  to  swine,  to  increase  the  pro- 
portion of  oil. 

By  the  new  process  of  steaming,  (a  very  simple  method, 
a  description  of  which  is  given  below,)  it  appears  that  the 
whole  of  the  lard,  or  oily  matter  in  the  hog,  or  of  tallow 
in  cattle,  may  be  obtained;  while  the  danger  of  burning, 
(common  in  other  modes,)  is  avoided,  the  consumption  of 
fuel  lessened,  and  the  degree  of  pressure  required  not  so 
great  as  otherwise.  It  will  be  recollected  that,  while 
conducting  the  manufacture  of  the  lard,  the  other  parts  of 
the  animal,  as  the  hams  and  shoulders,  may  be  turned  to 
profit.  Besides  these,  also,  the  hides  may  be  tanned  by  a 
cheap  process ;  and  the  bones,  which  are  worth  half  a 
cent  per  pound,  may  be  calcined  and  made  into  animal 
carbon,  for  which  they  are  said  to  be  worth,  in  this  cal- 
cined state,  two  and  a  half  cents  per  pound. 

There  is  a  great  difference  in  hogs,  as  to  their  frame 
and  the  kind  of  food  they  have  been  fattened  upon.  The 
average  Ohto  hogs  (common  breed,)  will  produce,  when 
tried  by  steam,  fifty  per  centum  lard,  after  deducting  the 
hams  and  shoulders.  The  plan  now  generally  adopted 
is,  not  to  take  out  the  shoulders ;  the  sale  for  them  is 
limited,  and  price  low;  the  covering  of  fat  will  produce 
more  in  lard,  than  the  expense  of  curing  would  warrant. 
The  mixture  of  the  China  and  Berkshires,  fed  upon  po- 
tatoes or  any  other  vegetable  containing  starch  as  a  prin- 
cipal food,  would  produce,  when  very  fat,  at  least  seventy 
per  centum,  after  taking  out  only  the  hams. 

The  steaming  apparatus  is  merely  a  tub  with  a  false 
bottom,  perforated  with  holes,  lying  about  two  inches 
above  the  bottom.  The  steam  is  introduced  between  the 
two  bottoms,  and  so  entirely  separates  the  fat  from  the 
cells  in  which  it  was  inclosed,  that  no  pressing  of  scraps 
is  necessary.  The  bones,  lean,  and  scrap,  are  left  on 
the  false  bottom,  and  the  lard  floats  on  the  surface.  With 


333 

steam,  at  a  pressure  of  five  pounds  to  the  inch,  it  will  re- 
quire from  eighteen  to  twenty  hours  to  try  off  a  tubfull  of 
any  given  quantity,  steam  in  proportion  of  course  ;  sixty 
pounds  pressure  would  do  it  in  one-third  the  time.  The 
great  advantage  of  steam  is,  the  whole  of  the  lard  or  tal- 
low is  produced,  and  there  is  no  danger  of  burning  either. 

The  quality  of  the  lard  is  good,  but  not  equal  to  leaf 
lard  or  suet ;  the  carcass  fat  does  not  contain  as  much 
of  the  concrete  principle,  (stearin.)  Whole  hog  lard 
cannot  be  refined  and  made  hard  without  a  portion  of  the 
oil  is  extracted.  I  take  from  twenty  to  forty  per  centum 
of  the  oil ;  then  the  balance  goes  through  several  wash- 
ings in  pure  rain-water  by  steam,  after  which  it  is  refined 
lard.  The  expense  is  not  more  than  one  quarter  cent 
per  pound,  but  it  is  of  more  value  to  us  than  common  lard, 
as  we  have  a  great  deal  of  trouble  and  expense  with  it ; 
and  in  only  extracting  a  portion  of  the  oil,  we  would  lose 
by  it,  did  it  not  command  a  better  price  in  the  market, 
which  it  should  from  its  purity. 

The  custom  has  been  to  decompose  the  lard  in  acid  and 
neutral  salts.  When  the  affinity  between  the  parts  is  de- 
stroyed, separate  them  by  means  of  canvas  bags  placed 
in  powerful  screw  presses.  If  you  wish  to  make  candles 
of  the  residue,  the  pressure  is  continued  until  all  the  oil, 
by  this  means,  is  forced  out.  The  contents  of  the  bags 
are  then  subjected  to  the  action  of  a  powerful  hydraulic 
press,  and  the  stearin  pressed  to  dryness. 

To  produce  the  winter  oil,  expose  the  decomposed  lard 
to  the  cold,  in  the  same  manner  that  the  crude  sperm  oil 
undergoes  to  produce  the  winter-strained  oil.  Upon  an- 
alysis, it  is  found  that  the  lard  oil  contains  79  2-10  car- 
bon, and  pure  sperm  oil,  79  5-10  ;  making  three-tenths 
of  one  per  centum  difference  ;  the  other  equivalent  of 
hydrogen  and  oxygen  are  the  same,  excepting  the  differ- 
ence of  the  three-tenths.  For  all  uses,  (excepting  paint- 


334  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

ing,)  lard  oil  has  no  equal.  It  burns  with  a  strong  white 
light,  and  is  entirely  free  from  either  smoke  or  smell. 
It  does  not  contain  any  gelatine,  which  makes  it  a  prefer- 
able article  for  all  kinds  of  machinery  ;  for  wood  it  an. 
swers  better  than  the  olive  oil,  which  it  has  superseded 
entirely.  The  oil  of  tallow  is  also  well  adapted  for  ma- 
chinery ;  for  burning  it  is  not  preferable  to  other  oil,  on 
account  of  its  odor.  Tallow  only  contains  about  twenty- 
eight  per  centum  of  oil,  whereas  lard  contains  on  the  av- 
erage sixty-two.  The  stearin  of  both  lard  and  tallow 
makes  a  better  and  harder  candle  then  sperm,  and  the 
same  amount  in  weight  produces  a  great  deal  more  light. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

HOPS. 

The  Soil. — The  hop  is  planted  on  various  soils,  and 
chiefly  in  valleys.  They  are  generally  of  the  best  qual- 
ity on  strong  clay  land  :  the  crop,  however,  there  is  very 
precarious.  Those  on  peat  are  much  more  productive  ; 
but  are  liable  to  be  affected  by  the  mould  in  some  seasons, 
which  reduces  their  value  considerably.  The  best  plan- 
tations are  on  a  deep  loamy  soil,  where  the  produce  of 
the  latter  and  the  quality  of  the  former  are  sometimes  ob- 
tained. Those  which  are  grown  on  sandy  and  gravelly 
lands,  are  seldom  remarkable  for  either  great  produce  or 
quality.  The  best  situation  for  a  plantation  is  a  southern 
aspect,  well  shaded  on  three  sides  either  by  hills  or  tim- 
ber. 

Manuring. — In  the  winter,  the  manure  should  be  pro- 
vided  for  the  hop-ground  fo**  the  following  spring.  If  the 
dung  be  rotten,  mix  with  two  or  three  parts  of  common 
earth,  and  let  it  incorporate  together  till  there  is  occasion 
to  use  it  in  making  the  hop  hills ;  but  if  it  be  new  dung, 
then  let  it  be  mixed  as  before  till  the  spring  in  the  next 
year,  for  new  dung  is  very  injurious  to  hops.  Hops  re- 
quire to  be  planted  in  a  situation  so  open,  that  the  air  may 
freely  pass  between  and  round  them  to  dry  up  and  dissi- 
pate the  moisture,  which  often  destroys  the  middle  of  large 
plantations,  while  the  outsides  remain  unhurt.  The  hills 
should  be  seven  or  eight  feet  apart .  If  the  ground  be 
intended  to  be  ploughed  with  horses  between  the  hills,  it 
will  be  best  to  plant  them  in  squares,  chequerwise  ;  but 


336  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

if  the  ground  is  so  small  that  it  may  be  done  with  a  breast 
plough,  the  hills  should  be  arranged  in  a  quincunx  form 
— whichsoever  way  is  made  use  of,  a  stake  should  be 
stuck  down  at  all  the  places  where  the  hills  are  to  be 
made. 

The  kind  of  Hops. — As  to  the  kind  of  hops,  it  is  necessa- 
ry to  pay  some  attention  ;  for  if  the  hop  garden  be  plant- 
ed with  a  mixture  of  several  sorts  of  hops,  that  ripen 
at  several  times,  it  will  cause  much  trouble,  and  great 
inconvenience.  The  two  best  sorts  are  the  white  and  gray 
kind.  The  latter  is  a  large  square  hop  ;  more  hardy  ; 
bears  more  abundantly ;  but  ripens  later  than  the  former. 
There  is  another  sort  of  the  white  kind,  which  ripens  a 
week  or  ten  days  sooner  than  the  former  :  but  this  is  a 
tenderer  and  less  plentiful  bearer ;  though  it  has  this  ad- 
vantage, that  it  comes  first  to  market.  If  there  be  a  sort 
of  hop  that  is  valued  and  wanted  to  be  increased,  the  su- 
perfluous binds  should  be  laid  down  when  the  hops  are 
tied,  cutting  off  the  tops,  and  burying  them  in  the  hill ;  or 
when  the  hops  are  dressed  all  the  cuttings  maybe  saved  ; 
for  almost  every  part  will  grow  and  become  a  good  set 
the  next  spring. 

Planting. — The  time  for  planting  hops  in  Kent,  Sussex, 
and  Hertfordshire,  England,  the  greatest  hop  countries  in 
the  world,  is  either  October  or  March.  In  Northern  Illi- 
nois, for  the  spring,  early  in  April  will  be  soon  enough, 
as  they  do  not  start  so  soon  ;  but  the  vegetation  is  more 
rapid,  and  will  come  to  maturity  sooner  here  than  the 
other  side  the  Atlantic.  The  better  time  to  plant  is  the 
spring  ;  and  the  cuttings  can  be  procured  when  the  hops 
are  dressed.  As  to  the  manner  of  planting  the  sets,  there 
should  be  five  good  sets  to  every  hill,  one  in  the  middle, 
and  the  rest  round  about  sloping.  Let  them  be  pressed 
close  with  the  hand,  and  covered  with  fine  earth ;  a 
gtick  should  be  placed  on  each  side  of  the  hill  to  secure  it. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  337 

But  to  form  a  new  plantation,  the  best  method  is  to  have 
the  cuttings  from  approved  stock,  planted  out  the  year  be 
fore  they  are  wanted,  in  the  hop  ground  ;  as  the"  use  of 
plants  instead  of  cuttings,  not  only  gains  a  year,  but  they  are 
more  certain  to  flourish.  A  small  piece  of  moist  land  is 
sufficient  to  raise  plants  for  many  acres,  and  at  a  little  ex- 
pense.  If  the  ground  be  new,  thoroughly  subdue  it  previous 
to  planting.  Work  the  land  with  a  spade,  and  set  it  out 
into  ridges  three  and  a  half  yards  wide,  and  two  yards  be- 
tween each.  Three  rows  of  plants,  or  as  they  are  termed 
hills,  are  made  upon  each  ridge,  which  should  intersect 
each  other.  They  are  generally  two  yards  distant  in  the 
rows  ;  so  that  about  thirteen  hundred  are  the  usual  num- 
be  of  hills  in  a  statute  acre, 

Poling. — Small  sticks  are  proper  to  tie  the  binds  up  to, 
the  first  year  ;  then  small  poles  for  a  year  or  two  ;  the 
size  of  which  should  be  gradually  increased.  Some  set 
two  poles  to  every  hill,  which  is  proper  for  ground  pro- 
ducing a  luxuriant  growth  ;  but  on  clay  land,  three  poles 
should  be  set  in  a  triangular  form  to  the  hills,  on  the  outside 
rows  of  each  ridge,  and  only  two  in  the  middle  row.  Ma- 
ny additional  poles,  longer  than  the  rest,  catch-poles,  are 
also  set  up  to  take  the  binds  as  they  run  beyond  the  les- 
sor poles.  Where  the  bind  is  weak,  three  heads  are  com- 
monly  trained  up  each  pole  ;  though  two  are  better  if 
strong. 

Cleaning  the  ground. — If  the  ground  intended  for  a  new 
plantation  is  not  clear  from  couch-grass  and  weeds,  a  com- 
plete fallow  is  essential,  whether  it  is  grass  or  stubble ; 
and  a  crop  of  turnips  may  be  taken  to  advantage,  if  the 
land  be  proper  for  their  growth,  and  can  be  made  clean, 
as  the  hops  will  be  planted  in  the  spring. 

15 


GLANCE  AT  THE 


CONSTITUTION 


OF  THE    ' 


UNITED    STATES, 


ETC.    ETC.    ETC. 


•IHAPTER    XIV. 

A  GLANCE  AT  THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  ETC. 

IT  will  be  both  interesting  and  useful  to  the  emigrant, 
to  have  at  hand  a  simple  abstract  of  some  of  the  leading 
facts  concerning  the  government  of  the  country,  which  he 
intends  to  make  his  home.  We  will,  therefore,  devote  a 
chapter  or  two  to  this  end. 

The  New  World  was  discovered  by  Christopher  Colum- 
bus, in  1492.  The  inhabitants  were  a  race  of  people  to 
whom  the  name  of  Indians  was  given.  The  origin  of 
Inese  people  is  uncertain.  Some  suppose  that  they  came 
from  Asia  ;  that  they  crossed  the  narrow  straits  which 
separate  Asia  from  America,  called  Beh rings  Straits. 
However  this  may  be,  the  Indian  race  was  in  possession 
of  the  New  World. 

Spain  took  possession  of  much  of  the  southern  territory, 
such  as  the  West-India  Islands,  Mexico,  Peru,  and  other 
regions.  France  soon  took  possession  of  the  country  on 
ine  St.  Lawrence  river  ;  and  England,  of  many  valua- 
ble parts  of  the  country  now  included  within  the  United 
States. 

This  territory,  which  had  been  taken  from  the  Indian 
race,  soon  began  to  be  colonized.  In  1607,  a  band  of 
English  emigrants  took  possession  of  that  large  tract  of 
country,  which  lies  between  what  is  now  called  North 
Carolina  and  New  Brunswick ;  a  pretty  fair  slice  to  be- 
gin with,  it  must  be  admitted.  This  tract  was  afterward 
divided  into  smaller  districts,  and  settled  by  English  emi- 
grants. 


342 

New- York  was  settled  in  1613,  by  emigrants  from 
Holland,  but  in  1644,  it  become  an  English  colony. 

New- England  was  settled  in  1620,  by  a  hardy  band 
of  emigrants,  most  appropriately  called  Pilgrims.  At 
the  dead  of  winter,  in  a  small  and  leaky  vessel  called  the 
Mayflower,  they  breasted  their  way  across  the  ocean,  and 
landed  late  in  December  on  the  iron-bound  shores  of  New- 
England.  They  found  nothing  but  a  wilderness,  and  a 
race  of  Indians  to  welcome  their  arrival.  Here  they  had 
to  build  houses,  subdue  the  forest  and  turn  it  into  fields, 
and  to  form  a  government.  Suffering  from  hunger,  cold, 
hostile  Indians,  and  sickness,  they  had  well  nigh  perish- 
ed ;  but  the  noble  band  of  Pilgrim  emigrants  endured 
all  these  things,  and  helped  to  lay  the  foundation  of  a 
nation. 

The  rest  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  was  soon  afterward  taken 
possession  of  by  colonies  ;  Maryland,  in  1634  ;  New-Jer- 
sey, in  1664;  Pennsylvania,  in  1684;  North  Carolina, 
between  1640  and  1650  ;  South  Carolina,  in  1670  ;  Geor- 
gia, in  1732  ;  Delaware,  in  1627. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  Emigrants  performed  the  first  great 
acts  in  settling  the  New  World.  Among  these  early 
emigrants,  were  men  of  various  religious  creeds,  and 
various  nations.  The  Puritan,  the  Roman  Catholic,  the 
Church-of-England  man,  the  Quaker,  all  came  over  to 
advance  their  religion.  The  English,  the  French,  the 
Dutch,  all  were  found  in  the  different  colonies  ;  even 
Sweden  and  Finland  had  their  hand  in  the  great  work  of 
colonizing  America,  Delaware  having  been  settled  by 
a  company  of  Swedes  and  Finns  in  the  year  1627. 

These  peculiar  features  in  the  early  settlement  of  the 
New  World  are  full  of  interest,  and  are  without  a  paral- 
lei  in  history. 

We  will  pass  over  the  early  struggles  of  these  infant 
colonies,  until  the  year  1776.  How  much  they  suffered 


THE    EMIGRANT  S    HAND-BOOK.  343 

no  one  can  tell.  That  their  sufferings  were  of  the  se- 
verest kind,  cannot  be  doubted.  Great,  therefore,  is  the 
debt  which  the  present  age  owes  to  the  hardy  emigrants 
who  came  into  the  wilderness  at  that  early  day. 

In  1776,  there  were  thirteen  colonies,  founded  by  dif- 
ferent nations,  and  under  different  laws  ;  though  they  had 
all  come  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Great  Britian.  On  her 
they  depended,  and  called  her  the  mother  country. 

Troubles  of  various  kinds  sprung  up  between  the  col- 
onies and  the  mother  country,  of  which  it  is  not  neces- 
sary here  to  speak.  These  troubles  increased,  until  the 
thirteen  colonies,  on  the  fourth  of  July,  1776,  resolved  to 
be  independent ;  and  to  constitute  a  Nation  of  them- 
selves. 

This  led  to  a  war  of  eight  years  duration,  called  the 
War  of  the  Revolution.  It  resulted  in  the  independence 
of  the  colonies,  which  thenceforward  took  their  place 
among  the  nations  of  the  earth,  as  the  United  States  of 
America. 

A  continental  Congress  was  now  formed  by  the  united 
action  of  the  several  States,  and  articles  of  confederation 
were  adopted.  This  was  in  1777.  Maryland  did  not 
agree  to  these  articles  till  17S1. 

In  1787,  the  present  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
was  adopted,  to  which  we  will  now  turn. 

Before  doing  so,  however,  it  may  be  well  to  observe, 
that  there  are  now  thirty  States  in  the  Union,  each  one  of 
which  lias  its  own  peculiar  laws  for  certain  purposes,  while, 
for  oilier  purposes,  it  permits  the  General  Congress  to  make 
laws  for  it. 

Each  State  is  perfectly  independent  of  every  other  State, 
excepting  in  certain  matters,  which  they  have  all  agreed 
shall  be  in  common.  What  these  matters  are,  that  are  to 
be  in  common,  we  shall  briefly  mention  at  the  proper  time. 


344  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

It  is  important  that  the  emigrant  fully  understand  this 
general  idea,  and  we  will  illustrate  it  as  follows : 

We  will  suppose  that  thirty  men  wish  to  join  their 
means  and  their  knowledge  together,  to  accomplish  a 
certain  end :  to  open  a  coal  mine,  for  instance.  Each  of 
these  men,  we  will  say,  has  a  family  of  children,  a  wife 
and  servants. 

They  meet  together,  to  lay  plans  to  open  and  work  the 
coal  mine.  It  becomes  necessary,  of  course,  that  they 
should  have  some  written  agreement  among  themselves, 
so  as  to  know  what  each  man's  duty  is,  and  what  share 
of  the  profits  and  losses  is  to  fall  to  each.  It  is  very  evi- 
dent that,  without  such  an  understanding  at  the  outset, 
great  trouble  might  arise,  and  the  rights  of  the  weaker 
be  trampled  upon  by  the  stronger. 

It  is  also  evident,  that  this  written  agreement  should 
only  refer  to  the  interests  of  the  particular  business  the 
thirty  men  are  entering  upon — namely,  the  opening  of 
the  coal  mine.  'Their  other  business,  whatever  it  might 
be,  would  not  be  included  in  the  provisions  of  this  coal 
mining  agreement ;  nor  would  the  education  of  their 
children,  the  management  of  their  families,  or  anything 
except  that  which  had  a  clear  connection  with  the  interests 
of  mining. 

Suppose  that,  after  a  while,  some  one  of  the  thirty  should 
propose  to  interfere  in  the  private  affairs  of  another  of  the 
thirty,  and  should  propose  to  the  company  that  they  take 
a  vote  on  the  subject.  What  would  be  the  course  of  the 
man  whose  private  matters  were  thus  interfered  with  1  To 
tell  the  company  to  look  at.  the  written  articles  of  agreement, 
and  see  if  that  gave  them  any  right  thus  to  interfere.  This 
wauld  settle  the  matter  at  once.  Thus  it  is  with  the  sev- 
eral States  of  the  Union. 

The  thirteen  original  States,  having  certain  important 
objects  of  mutual  interest  to  secure,  such  as  defending  the 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  345 

nation  against  a  foreign  enemy,  and  the  like,  agreed  upon 
a  sort  of  partnership ;  and  entered  into  a  written  agree- 
ment, or  understanding,  on  the  subject.  This  written 
agreement  is  called  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 
Whatever  is  clearly  written  down  in  this  agreement,  as 
belonging  to  the  United  States  to  make  laws  upon,  the  Con- 
gress of  the  United  States  has  a  right  to  manage.  What- 
ever is  not  written  down,  or  plainly  implied,  is  left  entirely 
to  the  individual  States ;  and  Congress  has  no  more  right 
to  meddle  with  it,  than  have  the  majority  of  those  who 
compose  the  coal-mining  company,  to  meddle  with  the  pri- 
vate affairs  of  one  of  the  members  of  the"  company. 

The  thirty  States  are  like  the  thirty  men  in  the  coal 
company :  each  has  a  right  to  manage  its  own  affairs,  in 
its  own  way,  by  its  own  Legislature.  The  General  Gov- 
ernment has  the  right  to  meddle  with  such  matters  only  as 
are  plainly  laid  down  in  the  Constitution. 

We  are  thus  particular  in  elucidating  this  idea,  as  it 
is  one  to  which  the  emigrant  is  not  accustomed. 

The  General  Government,  by  the  terms  of  the  written 
Constitution,  has  the  power — 

To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts,  and  excises, 
to  pay  the  debts  and  provide  for  the  common  defence  and 
general  welfare  of  the  United  States;  but  all  duties,  im- 
posts, and  excises,  shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  United 
States : 

To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States  : 

To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations,  and  among 
the  several  States,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes  : 

To  establish  an  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and 
uniform  laws  on  the  subject  of  bankruptcies,  throughout 
the  United  States : 

To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of  for- 
eign coin,  and  fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures : 
15* 


346 

To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the 
securities  and  current  coin  of  the  United  Slates : 

To  establish  post-offices  and  post-roads  : 

To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts, 
by  securing,  for  limited  times,  to  authors  and  inventors, 
the?  exclusive  right  to  their  respective  writings  and  dis- 
coveries : 

To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  supreme  court : 

To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  committed 
on  the  high  seas,  and  offences  against  the  law  of  nations : 

To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal, 
and  make  rules"  concerning  captures  on  land  and  water  : 

To  raise  and  support  armies ;  but  no  appropriations  of 
money  to  that  use  shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two 
years : 

To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy : 

To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of 
the  land  and  naval  forces  : 

To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the 
laws  of  the  Union,  suppress  insurrections,  and  repel  in- 
vasions : 

To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining 
the  militia,  and  for  governing  such  parts  of  them  as  may 
be  employed  in  the  service  of  the  United  States,  reserving 
to  the  States  respectively  the  appointment  of  the  officers, 
and  the  authority  of  training  the  militia  according  to  the 
discipline  prescribed  by  Congress  : 

To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all  cases  whatso- 
ever, over  such  district,  (not  exceeding  ten  miles  square,) 
as  may,  by  cession  of  particular  States  and  the  acceptance 
of  Congress,  become  the  seat  of  the  Government  of  the 
United  States,  and  to  exercise  like  authority  over  all 
places  purchased  by  the  consent  of  the  Legislature  of  the 
States  in  which  the  same  shall  be,  fop  the  erection  of  forts. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  347 

magazines,  arsenals,  dock-yards,  and  other  needful  build- 
ings: 

The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  is,  therefore,  a 
most  important  document,  and  it  should  be  read  and  un- 
derstood by  every  emigrant. 

The  laws  of  the  United  States,  made  in  pursuance  of 
the  Constitution,  are  enacted  by  the 

CONGRESS, 

which  meets  annually,  on  the  first  Monday  in  December, 
at  Washington.  This  body  is  divided  into  two  houses, 
the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives. 

The  senators  are  chosen  for  six  years,  and  must  be 
thirty  years  old  before  they  be  elected.  There  are  two 
senators  for  each  State,  be  the  State  large  or  small. 

The  members  of  the  House  of  Representatives  must  be 
twenty-five  years  old.  They  are  chosen  for  two  years 
by  the  people  of  the  States  they  represent.  At  the  present 
time  there  are  two  hundred  and  twenty-seven  representa- 
tives ;  one  being  chosen  for  every  70,680  inhabitants. 

The  pay  of  the  members  of  both  houses  is  eight  dollars 
a  day  while  Congress  is  in  session. 

OFFICERS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  PRESIDENT  is  the  chief.  He  is  elected  for  four 
years,  at  a  salary  of  twenty-five  thousand  dollars  a  year. 
He  is  commander-in-chief  of  the  army,  the  navy,  and 
the  militia  of  the  United  States.  His  duty  is,  to  see  that 
all  the  laws  are  faithfully  executed.  He  also  appoints 
the  chief  officers  of  the  army,  navy  and  customs. 

He  is  assisted  by  several  persons  called  secretaries, 
(termed  ministers  in  Europe,)  namely  : 

THE  SECRETARY  OF  STATE,  whose  duty  it  is  to  manage 
all  the  business  with  foreign  Governments ;  to  give  in- 


348 

structions  to  foreign  embassadors  and  consuls;  to  treat 
with  the  embassadors  from  other  powers,  who  reside  at 
the  seat  of  government. 

THE  SECRETARY  OF  THE  TREASURY  takes  care  of  the 
whole  monetary  affairs  of  the  government.  It  is  his  duty 
to  see  that  the  revenue  is  collected ;  the  customs  properly 
managed ;  the  light-house  system  maintained ;  the  avails 
of  the  public  lands  legitimately  applied,  &c.  He  must 
also  look  forward,  and  see  that  no  deficiency  of  funds 
takes  place,  and  devise  plans  to  keep  up  the  credit  and 
resources  of  the  nation. 

THE  SECRETARY  OF  THE  HOME  DEPARTMENT  attends  to 
certain  portions  of  business  heretofore  transacted  in  the 
State,  Treasury,  and  War  Departments ;  among  which,  it 
is  proposed  to  embrace  those  branches  connected  with  the 
Patent  and  Land  Offices,  the  Indian  Bureau,  and  all  other 
matters  immediately  relating  to  internal  affairs.  This 
department  was  created  at  the  last  session  of  the  Thirtieth 
Congress,  and  its  duties  have  not  been  so  clearly  defined 
as  to  warrant  the  giving  of  minute  particulars. 

THE  SECRETARY  OF  WAR  has  charge  of  the  affairs  of 
the  army,  and  directs  its  general  operations.  He  has  also 
heretofore  attended  to  negotiations  with  the  Indians. 

THE  SECRETARY  OF  THE  NAVY  has  charge  of  naval 
affairs  generally :  such  as  building  and  equipping  vessels 
of  war,  planning  voyages  for  them,  and  seeing  that  proper 
discipline  and  skill  are  kept  up  throughout  the  navy.  The 
navy  is  composed  of  about  one  hundred  vessels  of  various 
kinds,  including  several  war-steamers,  employing  some  ten 
thousand  individuals,  at  an  annual  expense  of  nearly  eight 
millions  of  dollars. 

THE  POSTMASTER  GENERAL  has  the  charge  of  the  mail 
service  of  the  entire  country,  which  is  a  most  arduous 
business.  His  salary  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  Secretaries 
of  Departments,  six  thousand  dollars.  The  whole  extent 


349 

of  all  the  post  routes  is  about  one  hundred  and  sixty-five 
thousand  miles. 

THE  ATTORNEY  GENERAL,  whose  salary  is  four  thousand 
dollars,  exclusive  of  fees,  is  also  a  member  of  the  Cabinet; 
and,  besides  attending  to  certain  legal  matters  of  the  gov- 
ernment, it  is  his  duty  to  give  an  opinion  on  questions  of 
law  whenever  required  by  the  executive. 

The  annual  expenses  of  the  Government  average  about 
twenty-five  millions  of  dollars ;  but  owing  to  the  payment 
of  interest  on  the  public  debt,  and  other  temporary  demands 
on  the  treasury,  they  are  at  present  one-third  more  than 
the  ordinary  amount.  Three-quarters  of  this  is  obtained 
by  duties  on  imposts,  and  most  of  the  balance  by  the  sale 
of  public  lands. 

THE  PUBLIC  LANDS 

Are  interesting  to  the  emigrant  for  a  variety  of  reasons. 
They  offer  to  the  millions  of  the  Old  World,  in  the  present 
and  future  generations,  a  borne  of  plenty.  The  lands  are 
generally  fertile,  and  vast  quantities  of  them  situated  on 
navigable  waters.  In  another  place,  (p.  352,)  the  laws 
regulating  their  purchase  and  sale  will  be  found.  The 
United  States  own  upwards  of  one  thousand  millions  of 
acres,  which  will  form  a  certain  income  for  ages. 

POLITICAL  PARTIES. 

There  are  two  leading  parties  in  the  United  States,  at 
present  known  by  the  names  of  Democrat  and  Whig. 
These  parties  are  pretty  nearly  balanced :  sometimes  one 
elects  the  President,  and  sometimes  the  other.  This 
equality  of  strength  is  a  great  blessing  to  the  country,  for 
if  the  party  in  power  conduct  improperly,  the  majority 
can  soon  be  influenced  to  turn  against  it. 


CHAPTER    XV. 

NATURALIZATION    AND    PRE-EMPTION    LAWS. 

THE  following  summary  of  the  naturalization  and  pre- 
emption laws  of  the  United  States,  will  be  found  useful  to 
the  emigrant. 

Foreigners  who  are  not  naturalized,  may  reside  in  the 
United  States,  and  are  entitled  to  the  same  protection  of 
life,  liberty,  and  property,  as  native  citizens  are.  They 
may  transact  any  business  they  choose,  and  are  subject 
to  no  disabilities  in  their  occupations,  on  accounfof  their 
being  aliens.  They  are  protected  in  the  exercise  and 
enjoyment  of  their  religion,  no  matter  of  what  creed  they 
may  be.  They  may  rent  lands,  houses,  and  other  pro- 
perty, but  in  many  States  they  cannot  become  owners  in 
fee  of  the  soil  until  they  are  naturalized.  This  is  not  a 
very  great  objection,  however,  as  they  can  take  lands  on 
long  leases,  extending  through  their  lifetime,  and  beyond 
it.  On  becoming  naturalized,  they  can  hold  land  in  fee, 
the  same  as  native  citizens. 

Any  free  white  person  may  become  naturalized.  In 
order  to  be  so,  he  must  take  the  following  steps  : 

First.  He  must  apply  to  the  circuit  or  district  court  of 
the  United  States,  or  to  any  court  of  record  of  any  indi- 
vidual State.  This  application  must  be  made  at  least 
two  years  before  he  is  admitted  to  citizenship.  He  must 
declare  an  oath  or  affirmation, 

"  That  it  is  bona  fide  his  intention  to  become  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  and  to  renounce  for  ever  all  allegiance  and  fidelity  to  every 
foreign  prince,  potentate,  state  or  sovereignty  whatsoever,  and  par- 
ticularly, by  name,  the  prince,  potentate,  state  or  sovereignty  whereof 
such  alien  may  at  the  time  be  a  citizen  or  subject." 


THE!  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  351 

Second.  At  the  expiration  of  these  two  years,  he  may 
apply  for  his  certificate  of  citizenship,  when  he  will  have 
to  make  oath  or  affirm, 

"  That  he  will  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  and 
that  he  does  absolutely  and  entirely  renounce  and  abjure  all  allegiance 
and  fidelity  to  every  foreign  prince,  potentate,  state  or  sovereignty 
whatsoever  /  and  particularly,  by  name,  the  prince,  potentate,  state  or 
sovereignty  whereof  he  was  before  a  citizen  or  subject." 

It  is  necessary  to  remark,  however,  that  a  two  year's 
residence  in  the  United  States  is  not  sufficient  to  entitle  an 
alien  to  citizenship.  He  must  have  resided  in  the  United 
Stales  Jive  years  ;  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  make  known 
his  wish  to  become  a  citizen,  until  two  years  before  the 
expiration  of  the  five. 

Before  granting  the  certificate,  the  court  will  require 
proof  that  the  alien  has  resided  in  the  country  five  years, 
stating  the  place  or  places  of  his  residence  ;  and  one  of 
the  five  years  in  the  State  or  territory  where  he  applies 
for  naturalization. 

If  the  applicant  shall  have  borne  any  hereditary  title 
or  order  of  nobility,  he  must  formally  renounce  such  ;  he 
must  also  be  a  person  of  good  moral  character. 

After  he  receives  his  certificate,  he  enjoys  the  full  im- 
munities of  native  citizens  ;  he  can  vote,  hold  office,  own 
land  in  fee, -etc.  etc.  He  is  not  eligible,  however, 

1.  To  the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States. 

2.  To  the  office  of  Vice  President  of  the  United  States. 

3.  To  the  office  of  Governor  in  New- York,  and  several 
other  States  in  the  Union. 

PRE-EMPTION    RIGHTS,    OR     THE    RIGHT    OF    PURCHASING    BE- 
FORE   OTHERS. 

The  United  States  Government  owns,  at  the  present 
time,  as  we  have  said,  about  one  thousand  millions  of 


352  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

acres  of  wild  lands  ;  situated  in  many  of  the  States  and 
Territories.  The  price  at  which  these  lands  are  sold,  is 
one  dollar  and  twenty-five  cents  per  acre. 

In  various  places  at  the  West,  and  elsewhere,  there  are 
government  land-offices,  at  which  the  purchaser  must  ap- 
ply to  transact  any  business  he  may  have  relative  to  this 
matter.  It' is  not  necessary  to  name  the  localities  of  tne 
various  land-offices,  as  the  settler  will  readily  ascertain 
which  is  the  one  to  which  he  should  go. 

Under  certain  circumstances,  which  it  is  not  necessary 
that  we  should  name  here,  settlers  may  take  possession  of 
certain  vacant  government  lands.  As  this  is  a  subject 
of  great  interest  to  Western  settlers,  we  subjoin  the  law 
which  regulates  it,  together  with  the  forms  necessary  to 
be  observed  in  making  application  as  a  preemptor. 

This  law,  it  will  be  perceived,  has  been  in  operation 
several  years,  and  has  been  found  generally  satisfactory 
to  all  parties.  Since  its  passage,  it  has  undergone  some 
slight  modifications,  chiefly  for  temporary  purposes,  but  its 
principal  provisions  remain  unaltered. 

AN   ACT   TO   GRANT   PRE-EMPTION    RIGHTS. 

Sec.  10.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  That  from  and  after  the  pas- 
sage of  this  act,  every  person,  being  the  head  of  a  family,  or  widow,  or 
single  man,  over  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  and  being  a  citizen  of 
the  United  States,  or  having  filed  his  declaration  of  intention  to  become 
a  citizen  as  required  by  the  naturalization  laws,  who,  since  the  first  day 
of  June,  A.  D.  eighteen  hundred  and  forty,  has  made,  or  shall  hereafter 
make,  a  settlement  in  person  on  the  public  lands  to  which  the  Indian 
title  had  been,  at  the  time  of  such  settlement,  extinguished,  and  which 
has  been,  or  shall  have  been  surveyed  prior  thereto,  and  who  shall  in- 
habit and  improve  the  same,  and  who  has  or  shall  erect  a  dwelling 
thereon,  shall  be,  and  is  hereby  authorized  to  enter  with  the  register 
of  the  land-office  for  the  district  in  which  such  land  may  lie,  by  legal 
subdivisions,  any  number  of  acres  not  exceeding  one  hundred  and  sixty, 
or  a  quarter  section  of  land,  to  include  the  residence  of  srch  Claimant, 


353 

upon  paying  the  United  States  the  minimum  price  of  such  land,  subject, 
however,  to  the  following  limitations  and  exceptions  :  No  person  shall 
be  entitled  to  more  than  one  pre-emptive  right  by  virtue  of  this  act ; 
no  person  who  is  the  proprietor  of  three  hundred  and  twenty  acres  of 
land  in  any  State  or  Territory  of  the  United  States,  and  no  person  who 
shall  quit  or  abandon  his  residence  on  his  own  land  to  reside  on  the 
public  land  in  the  same  State  or  Territory,  shall  acquire  any  right  of 
pre-emption  under  this  act ;  no  lands  included  in  any  reservation  by 
any  treaty,  law,  or  proclamation  of  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
or  reserved  for  salines,  or  for  other  purposes  ;  no  lands  reserved  for  the 
support  of  schools,  nor  the  lands  acquired  by  either  of  the  two  last 
treaties  with  the  Miami  tribe  of  Indians,  in  the  State  of  Indiana, 
or  which  may  be  acquired  of  the  Wyandot  tribe  of  Indians  in  the 
State  of  Ohio,  or  other  Indian  reservation  to  which  the  title  has  been 
or  may  be  extinguished  by  the  United  States  at  any  time  during  the 
operation  of  this  act ;  no  sections  of  land  reserved  to  the  United  States 
alternate  to  other  sections  granted  to  any  of  the  States  for  the  con- 
struction of  any  canal,  railroad,  or  other  public  improvement ;  no  sec- 
tions or  fractions  of  sections  included  within  the  limits  of  an  incorpo- 
rated town  ;  no  portions  of  the  public  lands  which  have  been  selected 
as  the  site  for  a  city  or  town  ;  no  parcel  or  lot  of  land  actually  settled 
and  occupied  for  the  purposes  of  trade  and  not  agriculture ;  and  no 
lands  on  which  are  situated  any  known  salines  or  mines,  shall  be  liable 
to  entry  under  and  by  virtue  of  the  provisions  of  this  act.  And  so 
much  of  the  proviso  of  the  act  of  twenty-second  of  June,  eighteen 
hundred  and  thirty-eight,  or  any  order  of  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  as  directs  certain  reservations  to  be  made  in  favor  of  certain 
claims  under  the  treaty  of  Dancing-rabbit  creek,  be,  and  the  same  is 
hereby,  repealed  ;  Provided,  That  such  repeal  shall  not  affect  any  title 
to  any  tract  of  land  secured  in  virtue  of  said  treaty. 

Sec.  11.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  That  when  two  or  more  persons 
shall  have  settled  on  the  same  quarter  section  of  land,  the  right  of  pre- 
emption shall  be  in  him  or  her  who  made  the  first  settlement,  provided 
such  persons  shall  conform  to  the  other  provisions  of  this  act ;  and  all 
questions  as  to  the  right  of  pre-emption  arising  between  different  set- 
tlers, shall  be  settled  by  the  register  and  receiver  of  the  district  within 
which  the  land  is  situated,  subject  to  an  appeal  to  and  a  revision  by  the 
Secretary  ofjthe  Treasury  of  the  United  States. 

See.  12.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  That  prior  to  any  entries  being 
made  under  and  by  virtue  of  the  provisions  of  this  act,  proof  of  the 
settlement  and  improvement  thereby  required,  shall  be  made  lo  the 


854  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

satisfaction  of  the  register  and  receiver  of  the  land  district  in  which 
such  lands  may  lie,  agreeably  to  such  rules  as  shall  be  prescribed  by 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  who  shall  each  be  entitled  to  receive 
fifty  cents  from  each  applicant  for  his  services  to  be  rendered  as  afore- 
said ;  and  all  assignments  and  transfers  of  the  right  hereby  secured 
prior  to  the  issuing  of  the  patent,  shall  be  null  and  void. 

Sec.  13.  And  be  it  further  enflered,  That  before  any  person  claiming 
the  benefit  of  this  act  shall  be  allowed  to  enter  such  lands,  he  or  she 
shall  make  oath  before  the  receiver  or  register  of  the  land  district  in 
which  the  land  is  situated,  (who  are  hereby  authorized  to  administer 
the  same,)  that  he  or  she  has  never  had  the  benefit  of  any  right  of  pre- 
emption under  this  act ;  that  he  or  she  is  not  the  owner  of  three  hun- 
dred and  twenty  acres  of  land  in  any  State  or  Territory  of  the  United 
States,  nor  hath  he  or  she  settled  upon  ajid  improved  said  land  to  sell 
the  same  on  speculation,  but  in  good  faith  to  appropriate  it  to  his  or 
her  own  exclusive  use  or  benefit ;  and  that  he  or  she  has  not,  directly 
or  indirectly  made  any  agreement  or  contract,  in  any  way  or  manner, 
with  any  person  or  persons  whatsoever,  by  which  the  title  which  he  or 
she  might  acquire  from  the  Government  of  the  United  States,  should 
enure  in  whole  or  in  part,  to  the  benefit  of  any  person  except  himself 
or  herself;  and  if  any  person  taking  such  an  oath  shall  swear  falsely  in 
the  premises,  he  or  she  shall  be  subject  to  all  the  pains  and  penalties  of 
perjury,  and  shall  forfeit  the  money  which  he  or  she  may  have  paid  for 
said  land,  and  all  right  and  title  to  the  same  ;  and  any  grant  or  con- 
veyance which  he  or  she  may  have  made,  except  in  the  hands  of  bona 
fide  purchasers,  for  a  valuable  consideration,  shall  be  null  and  void. 
And  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  officer  administering  such  oath,  to  file 
a  certificate  thereof  in  the  public  land-office  of  such  district,  and  to 
transmit  a  duplicate  copy  to  the  General  Land  Office,  either  of  which 
shall  be  good  and  sufficient  evidence  that  such  oath  was  administered 
according  to  law. 

Sec.  14.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  That  this  act  shall  not  delay  the 
sale  of  any  of  the  public  lands  of  the  United  States  beyond  the  time 
which  has  been,  or  may  be,  appointed  by  the  proclamation  of  the  Presi. 
dent,  nor  shall  the  provisions  of  this  act  be  available  to  any  person  or 
persons  who  shall  fail  to  make  the  proof  and  payment,  and  file  the  af- 
fidavit required  before  the  day  appointed  for  the  commencement  of  the 
sales  as  aforesaid. 

Sec.  15.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  That  whenever  any  person  has 
settled  or  shall  settle  and  improve  a  tract  of  land,  subject  at  the  time  of 
settlement  to  private  entry,  and  shall  intend  to  purchase  the  same  un- 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  355 

der  the  provisions  of  this  act,  such  person  shall  in  the  first  case,  within 
three  months  after  the  pasage  of  the  same,  and  in  the  last  within  thirty 
days  next  after  the  date  of  such  settlement,  file  with  the  register  of  the 
proper  district  a  written  statement  describing  the  land  settled  upon,  and 
declaring  the  intention  of  such  person  to  claim  the  same  under  the 
provisions  of  this  act ;  and  shall,  where  such  settlement  is  already  made, 
within  twelve  months  after  the  passage  of  this  act,  and  where  it  shall 
hereafter  be  made,  within  the  same  period  after  the  date  of  such  set- 
tlement, make  the  proof  affidavit,  and  payment  herein  required  ;  and 
if  he  or  she  shall  fail  to  file  such  written  statement  as  aforesaid,  or  shall 
fail  to  make  such  affidavit,  proof,  and  payment,  within  the  twelve 
months  aforesaid,  the  tract  of  land  so  settled  and  improved  shall  be 
subject  to  the  entry  of  any  purchaser. 
Approved,  September  4, 1841. 

FORMS  FOR  BUSINESS  AT  THE  LAND  OFFICES. 

AFFIDAVIT   REQUIRED   OF    PRE-EMPTION   CLAIMANTS. 

FORM  A. 

I  A.  B,  claiming  the  right  of  pre-emption  under  the  provisions  of 
the  act  of  Congress,  entitled  "  An  act  to  appropriate  the  proceeds  of 
the  sale  of  the  public  lands,  and  to  grant  pre-emption  rights,"  approved 
September  4,  1841,  to  the  quarter  of  section  number  , 

of  township  number  ,  of  range  number  , 

subject  to  sale  at  ,  do  solemnly  swear,  [or  affirm,  as  the 

case  may  be,]  that  I  have  never  had  the  benefit  of  any  right  of  pre- 
emption under  this  act ;  that  I  am  not  the  owner  of  three  hundred  and 
twenty  acres  of  land  in  any  State  or  Territory  of  the  United  States, 
nor  have  I  settled  upon  and  improved  said  land  to  sell  the  same  on 
speculation,  but  in  good  faith  to  appropriate  it  to  my  own  exclusive  use 
or  benefit ;  and  that  I  have  not,  directly  or  indirectly,  made  any  agree- 
ment or  contract,  in  any  way  or  manner,  with  any  person  or  persons 
whatsoever,  by  which  the  title  which  I  may  acquire  from  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  should  enure,  in  whole  or  in  part,  to  the 
benefit  of  any  person  except  myself 

(Signed)  A  B. 

I,  C.  D.,  register  [or  E.  F.,  receiver]  of  the  land  office  at  ,  do 

hereby  certify,  that  the  above  affidavit  was  taken  and  subscribed  before 
me,  this  day  of  ,  A.  D.  184  . 

(Signed)  C.  D.,  Register. 

Or,  E.  F.  Receiver 


356 


FORM    B. 


FOB    3ASES     WHERE     THE   LAND   CLAIMED   SHALL     HAVE   BEEN     RENDERET 
SUBJECT   TO   PRIVATE   ENTRY   SINCE  THE   DATE   OF   THE   LAW. 

I,  A.  B.,  of  •    i  • .;  ,  being  [the  head  of  a 

family,  or  widow,  or  single  man,  over  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  as 
the  case  may  be,  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  or  having  filed  my 
declaration  to  become  a  citizen  as  required  by  the  naturalization  laws, 
as  the  case  may  be,]  have  since  the  first  day  of  ,  A.  D. 

184  ,         settled  and  improved   the  quarter  of  section  number 

,  in  township  number  of  range  number 

in  the  district  of  lands  subject  to  sale  at  the  land-office  at  , 

and  containing  acres,  which  land  has  been  rendered  sub- 

ject to  private  entry  since  the  passage  of  the  act  of  4th  September, 
1841,  but  prior  to  my  settlement  thereon  ;  and  I  do  hereby  declare  my 
intention  to  claim  the  said  tract  of  land  as  a  pre-emption  right,  under 
the  provisions  of  said  act  of  4th  September,  1841. 

Given  under  my  hand,  this  day  of 

A.  D.     184  . 

(Signed)  A.  B. 

In  presence  of  C.  D. 

FORM    C. 

FOR    CASES     WHERE,   AT   THE     DATE   OF    THE   LAW,    THE    LAND     CLAIMED 
WAS    SUBJECT    TO    PRIVATE    ENTRY. 

I,  A,  B.,  of  ,  being  [the  head  of  a  family,  or 

widow,  or  single  man,  over  the  age  of  twenty-ona  years,  as  the  case 
may  be,  and  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  or  having  filed  my  declara- 
tion to  become  a  citizen  as  required  by  the  naturalization  laws,  as  the 
case  may  be,]  have,  since  the  first  day  of  June,  1840,  lo  wit :  on  the 
day  of  ,  A.  D.  184  ,  settled  and  im- 

proved the  quarter  section,  number  ,  in  town- 

ship number  ,  of  range  number  ,  in  the  dis- 

trict of  lands  subject  to  sale  at  the  land-office  at  ,  and 

containing  acres,  which  land  was  subject  to  private  entry 

at  the  passage  of  the  act  of  4th  September,  1841  ;  and  I  do  hereby 
declare  my  intention  to  claim  the  said  tract  of  land  as  a  pre-emption 
right  under  the  provisions  of  said  act  of  4th  Semptember,  1841. 

Given  under  my  hand,  this  day  of 

A.  D.   184   . 

(Signed)  A.  B. 

In  presence  of  C.  D. 


MISCELLANEOUS    ITEMS; 


AGRICULTURAL,   DOMESTIC,    ETC., 


VARIOUS  USEFUL  TABLES. 


CHAPTER     XV  I. 


MISCELLANY. 

IN  this  department  a  great  variety  of  tables,  hints,  facts, 
recipes,  and  the  like  are  given  ;  without  any  regard  to 
order  of  classification.  They  will  all  be  found  useful. 

TO   MAKE  BLACK  SALTS. 

Set  up  a  leach.  .  This  is  done  by  taking  a  strong  cask, 
.or  tub  made  on  purpose.  Bore  a  hole  in  the  bottom,  and 
place  the  cask  on  some  blocks  of  wood  to  raise  it  up  from 
the  ground,  so  as  to  catch  the  water  which  drops  from  the 
hole  in  the  cask.  Then  place  on  the  bottom  of  the  bar- 
rel,  inside  of  it,  three  or  four  pieces  of  wood  or  bricks, 
and  a  layer  of  clean  straw  on  the  top  of  them.  Now  fill 
the  leach  with  ashes.  Keep  the  ashes  thoroughly  wetted 
with  hot  water,  (if  possible,)  and  keep  it  dripping  till  the  lye 
loses  its  color.  The  lye  must  then  be  boiled  in  kettles  01 
pans  until  it  crystallizes  dry.  These  black  salts  always 
find  a  ready  cash  market. 

It  is  scarcely  possible  to  give  very  definite  informa. 
tion  on  such  simple  matters.  The  emigrant's  neighbors 
can,  and  will  teach  him  more  of  such  little  matters  than 
a  book  can. 

TO  MAKE  MAPLE  SUGAR. 

A  brief  description  of  the  process  is  given  as  used  by  the 
citizens  of  Vermont  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar  from  the 
sap  of  the  maple-tree.  The  process  in  the  early  settle- 


360  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

ment  of  the  State  was  very  simple,  being  nothing  more 
than  evaporating  the  sap  in  iron  kettles,  usually  about 
the  capacity  of  ten  gallons  each,  suspended  over  a  fire 
made  of  logs,  in  the  open  air.  When  the  sap  is  evapora- 
ted in  the  ratio  of  about  ten  or  twelve  gallons  into  one,  the 
product  is  taken  from  the  kettles,  and  strained  through  a 
flannel  bag,  which  takes  from  the  syrup  the  leaves,  coals, 
etc.,  which  get  into  the  kettles  while  over  the  fire.  The 
syrup  is  then  put  into  deep  vessels,  where  it  remains  for 
two  or  three  days,  to  settle.  The  syrup  is  then  carefully 
taken  from  the  vessels,  leaving  the  sediments,  and  return- 
ed to  the  kettles,  with  the  addition  of  about  a  pint  of  skim- 
milk  to  a  kettle  containing  eight  or  nine  gallons  of  syrup. 
It  is  then  slowly  heated,  when  most  of  the  impurities  re- 
maining in  the  syrup  will  rise  to  the  surface,  and  may  be 
taken  ofF  with  a  skimmer.  The  syrup  is  then  evaporated 
to  the  proper  consistency,  which  is  ascertained  by  cooling 
small  quantities  in  a  spoon,  or  in  some  small  vessel.  The 
product  is  then  taken  from  the  fire,  and  either  stirred  un- 
til it  is  cool,  by  which  it  becomes  dry  sugar,  or,  more 
commonly,  it  is  put  into  a  tub  or  trough,  and  left  to  "tool, 
without  stirring.  This  is  afterward  drained  by  drawing 
a  plug  from  the  bottom  of  the  tub  or  trough,  thus  sepa- 
rating the  molasses  from  the  sugar. 

In  the  early  settlement  of  the  State,  and  even  at  the 
present  time,  in  new  settlements,  the  above  has  been  the 
usual  mode  of  making  sugar. 

In  the  older  settlements,  buildings  are  erected  within  or 
near  the  sugar-orchards.  In  these  buildings,  large  ket- 
tles are  set  in  brick  furnaces,  for  the  purpose  of  evapora- 
ting the  sap.  In  some  of  them,  shallow  pans,  made  of 
sheet-iron,  about  six  inches  in  depth,  and  of  various  di- 
mensions, are  also  used.  These  pans  are  also  set  in 
brick  furnaces,  and  are  believed  to  evaporate  much  faster 
than  deep  kettles  of  the  same  capacity. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  361 

The  common  method  of  extracting  the  sap  from  the 
maple  is,  by  boring  into  the  tree,  about  two  inches,  with 
a  three-quarter  inch  bit  or  auger.  The  sap  is  then  con- 
veyed into  small  tubs,  holding  three  or  four  gallons  each, 
called  sap-buckets,  by  spiles  slightly  inserted  into  the 
tree.  It  takes  about  four  gallons  of  sap  to  make  one 
pound  of  sugar.  The  season  for  making  sugar  in  Ver- 
mont commences  between  the  middle  of  March  and  the 
first  of  April,  as  the  spring  is  more  or  less  forward,  and 
lasts  about  three  weeks.  One  hundred  good  trees  will 
yield  sap  sufficient  to  make  from  three  to  five  hundred 
weight  of  sugar. 

The  following  person  received  the  New-York  State 
Agricultural  Society's  first  premium,  for  the  best  maple 
sugar. 

To  the  Committee  on  Maple  Sugar  of  the  New-York  State  Agricultural  Society. 

GENTLEMEN  :  I  herewith  submit  to  your  inspection  40 
Ibs.  of  my  maple  sugar.  The  following  is  a  statement 
of  the  manner  of  making  and  clarifying  the  same  : 

In  the  first  place  I  make  my  buckets,  tubs  and  kettles 
all  clean — I  boil  the  sap  in  a  potash  kettle,  set  in  an  arch, 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  edge  of  the  kettle  is  defended 
all  round  from  the  fire.  I  boil  through  the  day,  taking 
care  not  to  have  anything  in  the  kettle  that  will  give  color 
to  the  sap,  and  to  keep  it  well  skimmed.  At  night  I  leave 
fire  enough  under  the  kettle,  to  boil  the  sap  nearly  or 
quite  to  syrup  by  the  next  morning ;  I  then  take  it  out  of 
the  kettle  and  strain  it  through  a  flannel  cloth  into  a  tub, 
if  it  is  sweet  enough,  if  not,  I  put  it  into  a  caldron  kettle, 
(which  I  have  hung  on  a  pole,  in  such  a  manner  that  I 
can  swing  it  on  and  off  the  fire  at  pleasure,)  and  boil  it 
till  it  is  sweet  enough,  and  then  strain  it  into  the  tub  and 
let  it  stand  till  the  next  morning.  I  then  take  it,  and  the 
syrup  in  the  kettle,  and  put  all  together  into  the  caldron, 


362 

and  sugar  it  off.  I  use  to  clarify,  say  one  hundred  pounds 
of  sugar,  the  whites  of  four  or  five  eggs  well-beaten,  about 
one  quart  of  new  milk,  arid  a  spoonful  of  saleratus,  all 
well  mixed  with  the  syrup  before  it  is  scalding  hot.  I  then 
make  a  moderate  fire  directly  under  the  caldron,  until  the 
scum  is  all  raised,  then  skim  it  off  clean,  taking  care  not 
to  let  it  boil  so  as  to  rise  in  the  kettle  before  I  have  done 
skimming  it ;  I  then  sugar  it  off",  leaving  it  so  damp  that 
it  will  drain  a  little,  until  it  is  well  granulated  ;  I  then  put 
it  into  boxes  made  smallest  at  the  bottom,  that  will  hold 
from  fifty  to  seventy  pounds,  having  a  thin  piece  of  board 
fitted  in  two  or  three  inches  above  the  bottom,  which  is 
bored  full  of  small  holes  to  let  the  molasses  drain  through 
which  I  keep  drawn  off  by  a  tap  through  the  bottom.  I 
put  on  the  top  of  the  sugar  in  the  box  a  clean  damp  cloth, 
and  over  that  a  board  well  fitted  in,  so  as  to  exclude  the 
air  from  the  sugar.  After  it  has  done,  or  nearly  done 
draining,  I  dissolve  it  and  sugar  it  off*  again,  going  through 
with  the  same  process  in  clarifying  and  draining  as  be- 
fore. 

I  do  certify,  that  the  above  is  a  correct  statement  of  my 
mode  of  making  maple  sugar. 

JOEL  WOODWORTH. 

WHICH    SIDE    OF    THE  HOUSE    TO    PLOUGH,  PLANT    ORCHARDS, 
TRUCK-PATCHES,    ETC. 

Very  few  persons,  particularly  emigrants,  when  they 
settle  in  a  new  country,  appear  to  know  which  side  of 
their  dwelling-house  to  plough,  to  avoid  sickness,  and  very 
many  farmers,  in  our  older  settlements,  appear  to  be  in 
want  of  the  same  information  as  to  where  they  should 
avoid  planting  orchards,  truck-patches,  etc.,  to  save  their 
families  from  summer  and  autumn  fevers. 

Never  plant  them,  when  you  can  possibly  avoid  it,  on 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  363 

the  western  or  south-western  side  of  your  dwelling,  ex- 
cept at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  house ;  for  the 
rotting  of  the  fruit,  melons,  squashes,  and  other  like  ar- 
ticles, in  very  warm  sickly  weather,  produces  a  pestilen- 
tial effluvia ;  and  the  air,  which  generally  blows  from  the 
west  and  the  southwest  in  the  sickly  months,  carries  it 
directly,  both  day  and  night,  to  your  dwelling,  and  more 
or  less  sickness  is  the  consequence.  And  for  the  same 
reason,  persons  settling  in  a  new  country  should  not,  for 
the  first  three  or  four  years  at  least,  plough  any  ground 
on  the  south  or  west  of  their  dwellings ;  as  the  new 
ground,  which  is  rich  and  highly  productive,  is  filled  with 
small  roots,  which,  upon  being  ploughed  up  and  exposed 
to  the  sun,  decompose  and  rot  very  Jast,  and  send  off  a 
sickly  miasma  and  pestilential  effluvia,  which  invariably 
produces  sickness  and  frequently  death  ;  while  the  afflict- 
ed family  have  not  the  most  remote  idea  of  the  cause,  and 
how  easily  it  might  in  a  great  measure  be  avoided.  Hence 
we  frequently  see  that  some  families  in  the  country  have 
much  sickness  in  the  hot  months,  while  others  within  a 
mile  of  them  are  healthy.  Thus  the  great  difference  be- 
tween the  healthy  and  sickly  side  of  the  Illinois  and  other 
rivers  of  the  West,  particularly  those  having  much  bottom 
or  valley  ground  that  is  sometimes  overflowed. 

Ask  any  observing  person  in  the  neighborhood  of  Peoria 
or  Peru,  Illinois,  and  they  will  tell  you  that  the  easterly 
and  north-easterly  side  of  the  river  is  very  sickly  in  hot 
weather ;  and  why  ?  because  the  western  wind  is  blow- 
ing the  miasma  of  the  valley  of  the  stream  to  its  eastern  ^ 
side. 

But  it  may  be  asked,  Is  the  ground  on  the  western  side 
of  the  house  in  a  new  country  never  to  be  ploughed  ?  we 
answer,  yes,  but  not  at  first.  Begin  by  ploughing  for  the 
first  three  or  four  years,  until  you  get  acclimated,  on*the 
easterly  or  northerly  side,  and  gradually  approach  the 


364 

other  side,  and  when  at  length  you  are  compelled  to  break 
the  ground  on  the  western  and  southern  side  of  the  house, 
do  it  late  in  the  fall  or  early  in  the  spring,  and  thereby 
much  sickness  may  be  avoided. 

Farmers  in  the  old  States  may  ask  what  they  are  to  do 
with  ground  on  the  westerly  side  of  their  dwellings  ?  We 
answer,  put  in  grain,  grass  or  the  like,  but  not  fruit  or 
truck  near  the  house  on  the  westerly  side. 

The  above  hints  are  vastly  more  important  than  they 
may  at  first  appear  to  be.  Try  them. 

INDIAN  CORN  SUGAR. 

This  new  article  of  Western  .product  is  every  way 
worthy  of  notice  here.  The  public  has  been  so  often  im- 
posed upon  by  new  articles  of  growth  and  manufacture, 
that  there  are  prejudices  against  those  which  are  really 
valuable. 

One  thing  is  certain,  namely,  that  in  a  particular  state 
of  the  plant,  the  corn-stalk  is  full  of  sweet  juice.  Here  we 
have  the  material  out  of  which  sugar  is  made,  in  great 
abundance.  Why  should  not  the  rich  prairies  furnish 
all  the  sugar  that  the  country  will  need,  and  even  ship  it 
to  Europe  ? 

The  following  article  is  from  the  published  transactions 
of  the  New-York  Agricultural  Society  : 

It  is  now  but  three  or  four  years  since  it  was  discovered 
that  sugar  could  be  made  from  ihe  corn-stalk.  Very 
little  attention  was  given  to  the  subject,  until  the  appear- 
ance of  a  report  made  to  Congress  by  Mr.  Ellsworth, 
Commissioner  of  Patents.  The  account  given  by  him  of 
experiments  made  the  preceding  year,  which  he  had  col- 
lected from  the  different  parts  of  the  United  States  ;  the 
great  amount  of  practical  information  embraced  in  the 
report,  together  with  the  very  interesting  and  important 
character  given  to  the  subject,  awakened  public  attention. 


365 

The  fact,  too,  that  a  new  method  of  producing  another 
almost  indispensable  article,  discovered  about  the  same 
time,  and  which  had  already  been  brought  to  considera- 
ble perfection,  had  proved  so  triumphantly  successful, 
has  perhaps  had  an  influence  in  leading  us  on  to  expect 
that  soon  sugar  would  be  as  easily  produced  from  the 
corn-stalk,  as  oil  now  is  from  hogs-lard.  Indeed,  so  ob- 
vious is  it  to  every  considerate  person,  that  the  position 
once  established  that  sugar  can  be  produced  in  this  way, 
it  is  no  less  than  bringing  an  article  almost  indispensable 
as  a  part  of  our  daily  food,  and  a  most  healthful  and 
harmless  luxury,  as  much  within  reach  of  every  family 
in  the  United  States,  as  the  very  corn  has  been  from 
which  it  is  produced. 

Viewing  the  subject  in  this  light,  perhaps,  induced  the 
Executive  Committee  of  the  New- York  State  Agricultu- 
ral Society,  to  offer  the  very  liberal  premium  of  one  hun- 
dred 'dollars  for  the  "  best  experiment"  in  testing  the  value 
of  the  crop,  and  the  practicability  of  cultivating  it.  The 
thing  was  new — much  expense  must  be  incurred — a  mill 
and  other  apparatus  must  be  constructed — "the  juice  ex- 
tracted by  iron  rollers,  so  as  to  obtain  the  maximum 
quantity  of  sugar" — one  acre  of  northern  corn,  cultivated 
for  the  purpose,  to  be  submitted  to  the  test.  With  all  the 
above  requisitions,  I  have  endeavored  fully  to  comply  ; 
and  now  the  last,  but  not  least,  to  make  a  "  full  report  of 
the  process  and  expense,"  remains  to  be  done. 

So  great  is  the  interest  felt  upon  this  subject,  that  it  is 
presumed  a  minute  account  of  the  process  will  be  expect- 
ed. In  the  performance  of  this  duty  I  must  claim  the  in- 
dulgence of  the  committee,  for  the  writing  of  reports  is 
new  business  to  me. 

Raising  the  Corn. — One  acre  of  ground  was  selected,  of 
a  sandy  loam,  cultivated  last  year  to  ruta-baga  ;  this  was 
manured  with  thirty  loads  of  the  best  stable  manure,  well 


366  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

mixed  in  with  the  soil  by  twice  ploughing  and  harrowing. 
Corn  planted  the  13th  of  May,  with  eight-rowed  northern 
corn  ;  the  rows  three  feet  apart  one  way,  and  hills  eighteen 
inches  the  other,  with  from  six  to  eight  kernels  in  a  hill. 
Corn  came  up  fine,  and  was  plastered  the  31st  of  May  ; 
hoed  the  first  time  the  9th  and  10th  of  June,  the  second 
time  24th  of  June.  Cultivator  run  through  it  three  times. 
The  corn  began  to  tassel  the  18th  of  July,  and  was  in  full 
tassel  the  first  of  August. 

Up  to  this  time  the  crop  had  looked  uncommonly  well, 
but  from  the  1st  of  August  a  severe  drought  commenced, 
and  continued  until  the  crop  was  very  materially  injured. 
Some  spots  where  the  corn  had  grown  most  luxuriantly, 
withered  and  dried  ;  other  parts  of  the  field  suffered  less, 
so  that  on  the  whole  there  was  some  more  than  half  of  a 
good  crop,  or  what  there  would  have  been  if  the  season 
had  coatinued  favorable. 

Cutting,  Grinding,  and  Boiling. — Cut  the  first  stalks, 
and  made  the  first  experiment  at  grinding  and  boiling,  the 
25th  of  August.  The  stalks  at  this  time  were  quite  green, 
but  the  produce  was  quite  satisfactory,  and  appeared  quite 
favorable  for  crystallizing.  The  juice  was  very  abun- 
dant, of  a  greenish  color,  very  rich,  thick  and  heavy,  yet 
retaining  all  the  flavor  of  the  corn-stalk,  until  after  clean- 
sing and  boiling. 

August  30th,  made  the  second  batch.  This  was  boiled 
in  a  shallow  sheet-iron  pan,  clarified  and  strained  accor- 
ding to  the  directions  given  in  Mr.  Ellsworth's  report. 
From  this  batch  was  taken  the  specimen  of  sugar  exhibited 
to  the  committee  at  the  State  Fair,  Rochester. 

Other  experiments  were  made  the  4th  and  7th  of  Sep- 
tember. 

The  object  of  these  successive  experiments  was  mainly 
to  determine,  at  what  time  the  saccharine  matter  was  suf- 
ficiently matured  to  make  crystallized  sugar. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  367 

On  the  llth  of  September  the  stalks  appeared  in  the 
right  stage,  and  the  cutting,  grinding,  and  boiling  were 
commenced,  and  continued  with  little  intermission  until 
the  whole  was  completed.  The  method  pursued  in  this 
operation,  was  to  keep  a  sufficient  number  of  hands  in  the 
field  to  strip  the  leaves  or  blades,  and  cut  off  the  tops  as 
fast  as  the  stalks  were  wanted  for  use  ;  this  labor  was 
generally  performed  by  boys.  The  corn-field  being  at  a 
little  distance  from  the  mill,  the  horse  used  for  grinding 
was  put  before  a  light  wagon,  and  driven  to  the  field  ;  the 
stalks  were  then  cut  and  placed  upon  a  wagon,  (taking 
care  to  keep  them  straight  and  in  order.)  driven  to  the 
mill,  and  ground  without  delay.  A  load  of  this  kind  in  a 
light  wagon,  with  lumber-box,  will  make  a  batch  of  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  gallons  ;  this  would  be  ground  in  about 
thirty  minutes.  Lime-water  was  mixed  with  the  juice 
while  it  was  running  from  the  mill.  The  juice  is  then 
strained  through  a  flannel  cloth  into  the  pan,  and  heated, 
rather  moderately,  to  the  boiling  point,  when  the  scum  is 
removed  with  a  skimmer;  then  boiled  rapidly  for  a  few 
minutes.  The  syrup  is  then  removed  from  the  fire,  and 
again  passed  through  the  flannel  strainer,  when  the  boil- 
ing is  finished,  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

The  process  from  the  cutting  of  the  stalk  to  taking  the 
sugar  from  the  fire,  could  not  possibly  be  performed  in 
less  than  two  hours ;  and  if  the  batch  was  larger,  would 
often  exceed  three.  Five  batches  were  made  in  one  day, 
from  which  one  hundred  pounds  of  sugar  was  produced. 

The  Boiler. — The  boiler  or  pan,  I  made  of  a  sheet  ot 
Russian  iron,  turned  up  at  the  sides  and  ends,  lapped  and 
riveted  at  the  corners  ;  would  hold  about  twenty-five  gal- 
lons, five  and  a-half  inches  deep,  but  from  fifteen  to  twen- 
ty gallons  is  as  much  as  would  boil  to  advantage.  This 
pan  is  placed  upon  an  arch  of  brick,  so  that  the  fire  comes 
in  contact  with  only  the  bottom. 


368 

Mitt. — To  construct  this  was  a  matter  of  much  more 
difficulty.  Some  drawings  and  descriptions  are  given  by 
Mr.  Ellsworth,  but  little  more  could  be  known  from  them 
than  that  there  must  be  three  rollers,  so  placed  and  put 
in  motion,  that  the  stalks  in  passing  between  them  should 
receive  two  crushings. 

To  plan  and  construct  a  mill,  with  the  proper  dimen- 
sions and  with  the  strength  required,  so  that  the  work  of 
crushing  the  stalks  should  be  performed  with  certainty 
and  dispatch,  was  no  easy  task.  I  flatter  myself,  that  I 
have  in  this  been  tolerably  successful.  The  rollers  and 
iron-work,  patterns,  etc.,  for  my  mill,  were  made  by  A. 
J.  Langworthy,  of  Rochester,  at  a  cost  of  sixty-five  dol- 
lars. The  whole  weight  of  iron  is  about  nine  hundred 
pounds.  ,  ; 

About  one-half  of  the  expense  of  the  mill  is  in  the  horse- 
power.  The  iron  rollers  being  placed  horizontal,  it  was 
necessary  to  have  a  horse-power  wheel  and  gearing,  in 
order  to  give  them  motion.  If  the  more  simple,  and  it 
would  seem  at  first  view,  less  expensive  forms,  given 
in  Mr.  Ellsworth's  report,  had  been  adopted,  placing  the 
rollers  perpendicular,  the  horse  passing  round  them,  the 
rollers  must  have  been  of  large  diameter  in  order  to  take 
through  the  length  of  a  corn-stalk  at  one  revolution  of  the 
horse.  These  large  rollers,  when  made  of  iron,  would 
have  been  very  expensive,  and  probably  not  work  as  fast 
as  the  small  ones  I  use,  giving  them  a  quicker  motion  by 
gearing.  In  my  mill  the  circumference  of  the  rollers  has 
such  a  proportion  to  their  motion,  that  the  velocity  is  equal 
to  about  one-sixth  the  velocity  of  the  horse  ;  or,  in  other 
words,  a  corn-stalk  six  feet  long,  will  pass  through  between 
the  rollers  in  the  same  time  that  the  horse  will  walk  thir- 
ty-six feet.  The  grinding  is  a  beautiful  operation  ;  the 
amount  of  juice  contained  in  the  stalk  is  surprising  to  ev- 
ery one.  The  stalks,  in  passing  through  the  mill,  are 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK. 

o/ ashed  very  fine,  and  the  juice  entirely  separated  from 
them  by  the  pressure  of  the  rollers. 

ClaHfying. — This  has  been  to  me  a  difficult,  and  to 
some  extent  an  unsuccessful  operation.  All  the  various 
methods  recommended  by  different  persons  who  have  made 
some  experiments  on  corn-stalk  sugar,  and  that  all  my  own 
experience  in  clarifying  maple  sugar  could  suggest,  failed 
of  producing  fully  the  desired  effect.  In  all  the  failures 
which  have  been  experienced  to  produce  crystallized 
sugar,  the  cause  should  be  sought  here.  Unless  the  juice 
of  corn-stalks  can  be  clarified,  it  is  vain  to  expect  a  pure 
article  of  crystallized  sugar.  All  the  obstacles  to  the 
complete  success  of  this  enterprise  are  met  at  this  point ; 
but  that  they  will  be  completely  overcome,  there  cannot 
be  the  least  doubt.  Lime-water,  applied  to  the  juice  as 
soon  as  it  comes  from  the  mill,  one  gill  to  fifteen  gallons, 
was  thought  to  produce  the  best  effect.  But  experiments 
were  made  with  various  other  things,  such  as  milk,  eggs, 
charcoal,  etc. ;  these  were  used  separately  and  combined, 
but  nothing  appeared  to  raise  the  scum  as  well,  and  ren- 
der the  juice  as  clear  and  well-flavored  as  the  lime-water. 
One  experiment  was  made  by  filtering  the  juice  through 
sand  and  charcoal.  This  rendered  it  very  transparent, 
and  improved  the  taste  ;  but  there  are  very  many  objec- 
tions to  this  process — the  length  of  time  required  for  the 
operation  is  a  sufficient  one. 

Straining. — This  operation  is  performed  both  before 
and  after  clarifying.  The  strainer  used  was  a  square 
yard  of  good  new  flannel,  of  fine  texture  ;  so  great  is  the 
amount  of  mucilage,  or  very  minute,  particles  of  the  corn- 
stalk contained  in  the  juice,  that  the  strainer  has  to  be 
rinsed  in  water  once  or  twice  in  straining  a  batch.  The 
second  time  straining  is  rendered  more  difficult  by  the 
juice  being  hot,  as  the  hands  have  to  be  used  in  forcing 
it  through  the  cloth.  As  knowledge  and  experience  is 
16* 


370  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

gained  on  the  subject  of  clarifying,  the  straining  will  be 
dispensed  with,  except  to  pass  the  juice  through  a  coarse 
strainer  to  remove  some  of  the  larger  impurities.  Some 
method  will  be  discovered,  by  which  all  this  foreign  mat- 
ter will  be  removed  in  the  operation  of  skimming. 

Boiling. — This  operation  requires  care  and  close  at- 
tention, particularly  when  about  ready  to  skim,'  and  when 
the  juice  is  concentrated  to  about  the  point  desired.  The 
more  rapidly  this  operation  is  performed,  the  more  per- 
fect will  be  the  crystallization.  But,  however  necessary 
it  may  be,  it  is  scarcely  possible,  with  any  apparatus  that 
I  have  any  knowledge  of,  to  perform  the  whole  labor  of 
cutting,  grinding,  straining,  skimming,  and  boiling,  in  the 
short  space  of  one  hour,  as  recommended  by  Professor 
Mapes,  of  New-York.  If  this  is  ever  done,  it  must  be  in 
very  small  quantities,  or  some  very  improved  method 
must  be  adopted. 

In  boiling,  as  soon  as  the  scum  begins  to  rise,  the  fire 
must  be  regulated  with  care,  that  time  may  be  had  for 
removing  the  scum  before  it  shall  be  boiled  in.  If  the 
operation  of  boiling  and  skimming  be  well  performed, 
about  one  gallon  of  thick  heavy  scum  will  be  obtained 
from  a  batch  of  fifteen  gallons.  The  syrup,  when  it  be- 
comes thick  and  nearly  done,  has  a  very  beautiful  ap- 
pearance, in  every  respect  equalling  the  best  of  maple 
syrup.  To  boil  to  the  crystallizing  point,  (which  is  a 
very  uncertain  one,)  requires  considerable  care  and  dis- 
crimination. The  same  tests  that  are  used  for  maple 
syrup,  are  equally  applicable  to  corn-stalk  ;  as  for  in- 
stance, when  it  will  flank  off,  breaking  short,  from  a  dip- 
per or  stick  ;  or  string  out  between  the  thumb  and  finger, 
from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  in  length,  is  perhaps  the 
safest  test.  Very  great  care  is  necessary,  here,  that 
it  is  brought  to  the  right  point,  and  no  more  ;  and  also 
in  managing  the  fire,  as  a  little  blaze,  or  too  strong  a 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  371 

heat,  is  most  sure  to  scorch,  and  this  is  fatal  to  crystalli- 
zation. 

Crystallization. — Difficulty  has  been  found  here,  by  all 
who  have  made  experiments  with  corn-stalk  sugar ;  but 
perhaps  every  one  has  obtained  a  sufficient  quantity  that 
was  well  grained,  to  satisfy  them,  that  the  difficulty  was 
somewhere  in  the  process  of  manufacture. 

From  recent  observation,  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  J 
have  kept  my  sugar  in  too  cool  a  place.  Two  small  par- 
cels, left,  partly  by  accident,  where  they  received  the 
warmth  of  a  fire,  were  found  well  grained.  But  there  is 
another  difficulty  after  it  is  well  crystallized,  to  make  the 
molasses  separate,  or  drain,  as  it  is  called  :  although  the 
crystal  appears  to  be  as  fine  as  was  ever  formed,  still  the 
molasses  will  not  separate  by  any  common  methods  used 
for  maple  sugar.  As  yet,  I  have  not  been  able  to  pro- 
cure any  better  specimen  than  that  exhibited  at  the  State 
Fair. 

AMOUNT    FROM    THE    ACRE. 

Although  the  quantity  of  stalks  was  so  much  diminish- 
ed  by  the  drought,  yet  six  hundred  were  obtained  ;  this, 
it  should  be  understood,  is  weighed  when  taken  from  the 
fire  and  before  graining  has  commenced.  If  it  were  all 
well  grained  and  molasses  separated,  the  weight  of  sugar 
would  probably  not  be  more  than  five  hundred,  and  mo- 
lasses one  hundred.  In  order  more  fully  to  determine  tfie 
amount  that  might  be  produced  from  an  acre  of  good 
corn,  I  measured  two  square  rods  of  the  best  corn  I  had  ; 
the  stalks  were  then  cut.  and  their  weight  was  one  hun- 
dred and  ninety-five  pounds  ;  after  grinding,  the  juice 
weighed  sixty-nine  pounds  and  measured  nine  gallons; 
from  this  I  obtained  twelve-and-a-half  pounds  of  sugar. 
By  this  it  would  appear,  that  had  the  whole  acre  been  as 


good  as  the  two  rods  submitted  to  the  test,  one 
pounds  would  have  been  the  produce.  And  it  would 
seem  that  this  must  be  a  safe  calculation,  as  the  stalks  on 
the  two  rods  were  not  as  large  as  would  be  grown  in  a 
good  season. 

An  equal  amount  by  weight  of  large  stalks  of  rank 
growth,  arid  of  small  ones  that  were  grown  thick,  Were 
ground  separately ;  but  as  no  material  difference  was 
found  in  the  produce,  my  opinion  is  that  the  corn  should 
be  cultivated  so  thick  that  no  ears  will  be  produced. 

EXPENSE. 

For  the  rent  of  land, , $3  00 

"  thirty  loads  of  manure  Is.  per  load, 3  75 

"  drawing  30  loads  manure  lOc.  per  load, 300 

"  ploughing,  harrowing  and  fitting  ground....... 234 

"  planting,  plastering,  cultivating  and  hoeing, 587 

"  see'd-corn  and  plaster, , 068 

"  spreading  manure 088 

The  whole  expense  of  raising  one  acre  corn-stalk, $19  52 

There  is  no  part  of  the  busiriess  that  is  so  tedious  as 
plucking  the  ears,  stripping  the  leaves,  and  cutting  off  the 
tassel.  A  part  of  this  labor  was  performed  for  the  fodder 
that  might  be  obtained  from  it,  but  it  was  not  sufficient  to 
pay  ;  as  the  labor  of  plucking  the  ears  was  performed  for 
this  consideration,  T  am  unable  to  say  what  it  would  cost ; 
but  this  much  is  certain,  it  is  needless  for  the  most  part, 
as  no  ears  of  any  amount  need  be  raised,  if  the  corn  is 
sufficiently  thick.  Prom  the  best  estimate  that  I  can 
make  of  the  expense  of  stripping  leaves  and  cutting  the 
tassel,  I  think  that  a  smart  hand  would  perform  the  work 
on  anTacre  in  six  days ;  therefore, 

The  amount  brought  forward, $19  52 

To  six  days' stripping  leaves,  etc., 4  50 

The  whole  expense  up  to  the  cutting  of  the  stalks  is $24  02 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  373 

• 
It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  come  at  the  expense  I  was  at 

in  manufacturing  the  acre  of  stalks  into  sugar,  so  much 
was  done  by  way  of  experiment.  But  as  one  hundred 
pounds  were  made  in  one  day,  1  shall  take  that  as  my 
guide,  and  call  it  a  day's  work  for  two  hands  to  make  one 
hundred  weight. 

The  amount  above  brought  forward,,...,. , $24  02 

To  12  days'  work  making  sugar  at  6s.  per  diem, 9  00 

To  use  of  horse  and  wagon  6  days  at  3s.  per  diem,...        .2J25 
To  3-4  cord  of  wood  at  12s.  per  cord, 1  12 

The  whole  expense  of  manufacturing  the  600  pounds  is     036  40 
Or  a  fraction  more  than  six  cents  per  pound. 

Some  credit  might  be  given  for  fodder,  as  a  large 
amount  of  leaves  or  blades  might  be  saved,  .with  a  little 
extra  labor  while  stripping  them.  The  stalks,  after  being 
ground,  are  worth  something  ;  horses  and  cattle  eat  them 
very  greedily  when  they  are  fresh  from  the  mill. 

REMARKS    AND    SUGGESTIONS,  BY    WAY    OF    RECAPITULATION. 

1.  If  good  crystallized  sugar,  of  pleasant  flavor,  shall 
be  produced  from  the  corn-stalk,  I  can  see  no  good  reason 
why  its  manufacture  shall  not  become  as  universal  as  the 
raising  of  corn.     Every  neighborhood  can  as  easily  be 
supplied  with  its  apparatus  to  make  sugar,  as  to  make 
cider. 

2.  Corn  should  be  grown  so  thick  as  to  produce  no 
ears.     Some  variety  of  corn  that  grows  very  large,  like 
the  "  Ohio"  or  "Rocky  Mountain,"  might  be  best;  this 
latter  is  well  adapted  in  some  respects,  as  it  is  very  little 
inclined  to  ears  or  leaves ;  cutting  the  tassel   will  not 
prevent  earing,   unless  they   are   all  cut  and  kept  cut. 
The  cutting  of  the  stalk  may  commence  as  soon  as  the 
tassol  is  ripe.     If  the  weather  is  warm,  grind  immediate- 
ly ;  but  if  cool,  or  early  in  the  morning,  a  little  delay  is 
not  thought  to  be  injurious. 


374  THE 

* 

3.  Lime-water  is,  perhaps,  the  best  for  clarifying  of 

anything  yet  discovered  ;  but  some  agent  that  will  more 
effectually  cleanse  from  all  deleterious  or  foreign  matter, 
is  necessary.  Science,  with  persevering  experiment,  will 
no  doubt  produce  this  result. 

4.  The  less  time  occupied  in  boiling,  the  more  perfect 
is  crystallization.     This  is  true  of  the   maple  juice,  and 
probably  more  so  of  the  corn-stalk.     To  boil  to  advantage-, 
two  pans  should  be  provided. 

5.  Any  man  of  ordinary  ingenuity  can  make  a  pan  in 
two  hours,  with  no  tools  but  cold  chisel,  punch,  hammer, 
and  six  cents  worth  of  rivets. 

6.  I   make  no  doubt,  that  a  mill  with  wooden   rollers 
would  answer  a  good  purpose  for  a  small  operation,  and 
small  operations  are  what  is  wanted  ;  let  no  man  go  into 
this  business  largely  until  there  is  more  knowledge  on  the 
subject.     A  simple  mill  with  two   rollers,  that  might  be 
built  for  five  dollars,  would  crush  the  stalk  and  save  most 
of  the  juice.     No  cog-wheels  can   be  necessary  ;   for  if 
you  turn  one,  the  other  must  go.     When  experience  has 
taught  how  to  clarify,  so  that  we  may  be  sure  of  a  good 
article,  then  will  be  time  for  more   perfect  and  expensive 
machinery. 

If  the  result  of  this  enterprise  depended  on  the  amount  of 
saccharine  matter  contained  in  the  corn-stalk,  its  success 
would  be  certain.  Estimates  that  have  been  made  of  the 
amount  that  might  be  made  from  an  acre,  have  probably 
never  been  too  high.  Improvements  in  cultivation,  and 
in  finding  the  variety  of  corn  best  adapted,  will  no  doubt 
greatly  exceed  these  estimates. 

8.  The  expense,  as  compared  with  maple,  must  be 
much  in  favor  of  corn-stalk.  Of  the  expense  of  growing 
an  acre  of  corn-stalks,  every  farmer  may  judge  correct- 
ly ;  then  compare  the  amount  of  fuel,  the  amount  pro- 
duced in  a  day,  the  expense  of  fixtures,  and  it  is  all  vastly 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  375 

in  favor  of  the  corn-stalk.  Only  let  the  corn-stalk  sugar 
have  the  delicious  flavor  and  the  beautiful  crystallization 
of  the  improved  maple,  and  no  longer  will  that  pride  of 
the  forest  be  hacked  and  bored,  "  with  wicked  hands,"  to 
obtain  its  sap. 

May  we  not  hope  that  Mr.  Ellsworth's  forth-coming  re- 
port will  throw  much  light  on  the  subject  ?  The  collect- 
ed experience  of  all  that  have  been  engaged  in  the  busi- 
ness the  past  season,  will  soon  be  laid  before  Congress  and 
the  people.  If  Professor  J.  I.  Mapes,  shall  fulfil  his 
pledge  made  in  the  last  report,  some  scientific  and  practi- 
cal information  will  no  doubt  be  the  result. 

With  these  remarks,  I  submit  this  report.  I  have  en- 
deavored to  give  a  faithful  and  full  account  of  my  experi- 
ment. I  am  aware,  that  on  some  parts  of  this  business,  I 
cannot  speak  as  favorably  as  might  be  desired  ;  but  for 
myself,  I  have  no  fear  of  the  result  of  the  enterprise.  1 
would  beg  leave  to  suggest,  that  a  liberal  premium  be 
offered  next  year,  for  a  given  amount  of  corn-stalk  sugar 
of  the  best  quality.  This  might  stimulate,  not  only  a 
greater  amount,  but  more  careful  experiment. 

TO  MAKE  CORN-STALK  SUGAR. 

^tt 

1st.  Cut  the  cane  as  ripe  as  possible,  but  before  any  acetic 
acid  is  formed  ;  litmus  paper,  touched  to  the  fresh-cut 
cane,  will  turn  red  if  acid. 

2nd.  Express  the  juice  without  loss  of  time,  as  every 
moment  after  cutting  will  deteriorate  its  quality. 

3rd.  A  small  quantity  of  clear  lime-water  (say  one  quart 
to  a  hundred  gallons  of  juice,  should  be  added  the  mo- 
ment it  is  expressed,  unless  the  juice  shows  acidity  with 
litmus  paper  ;  in  that  case,  no  lime  should  be  used,  but  a 
solution  of  sal  soda,  or  soda  ash,  should  be  added,  until  it 
is  precisely  neutral. 

4th.  When  the  juice  is  neutral,  (free  from  excess  of  acid 


376  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

or  alkali,)  it  should  be  evaporated  in  such  an  apparatus 
as  would  finish  its  charge  in  30  minutes  ;  if  the  boiling 
power  is  too  small,  good  crystallization  cannot  possibly  be 
obtained. 

The  whole  time  occupied  from  the  cutting  of  the  cane 
to  finishing  its  boiling  should  not  exceed  one  hour. 

5th.  To  know  when  the  lolling  is  finished,  place  a  ther- 
mometer in  the  kettle,  and  continue  to  evaporate  until  it 
stands  at  230°  Fahrenhiet.  If,  when  placed  to  run  off 
after  cooling,  it  should  be  found  too  freely  boiled,  the 
next  time  boil  to  240°,  or,  if  too  light  to  run  off,  to  238°, 
and  so  on.  | 

6th.  The  kettle  or  boiler  should  be  so  arranged,  that  the 
moment  it  is  done,  its  charge  should  be  thrown  into  a  cooler, 
capable  of  holding  a  number  of  charges.  The  first  charge 
should  be  left  in  the  cooler,  with  stirring,  until  the  second 
charge  is  thrown  in ;  then  with  an  oar  scrape  the  crystals 
found  on  the  side  and  bottom  of  the  cooler  loose,  and  gently 
stir  the  whole  mass  together,  (the  less  stirred  the  better,) 
so  continue,  at  the  letting  in  of  each  charge,  to  stir  gently  ; 
and  when  all  is  in  the  cooler,  let  the  whole  stand  until  it 
cools  down  to  175°;  then  fill  out  into  sugar  moulds  of  a 
capacity  not  less  than  14  gallons.  When  cooled  in  the 
mould  sufficient,  (say  fourteen  hours,)  pull  the  plug  out 
of  the  bottom  of  the  mould,  and  insert  a  sharp  point,  nearly 
as  large  as  the  hole,  some  six  inches  ;  withdraw  the  point, 
and  stand  the  mould  on  a  pot  to  drip. 

7th.  If  the  sugar  is  intended  to  be  brown,  leaving  it 
standing  on  the  spot  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time,  in  a 
temperature  of  80°,  will  run  off  its  molasses,  and  leave 
it  in  a  merchantable  shape  ;  it  will  probably  require 
twenty  days.  It  can  then  be  thrown  out  of  the  moulds, 
and  will  be  fit  for  use.  When  moulds  cannot  be  obtained, 
conical  vessels  of  wood  or  metal,  with  a  hole  at  the  tip, 
will  answer  equally  as  well. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  377 

The  above  description  will  be  sufficient  for  any  operator 
if  strictly  followed. 

BROOMCORN. 

There  are  several  varieties  raised  in  Hampshire  coun- 
ty, Massachusetts,  in  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut  river, 
principally  in  the  broad  meadows  of  Northampton,  Had- 
ley,  and  Hatfield.  The  pine-tree  kind  is  regarded  as  the 
poorest  kind,  or  the  least  advantageous  for  cultivation ; 
yet,  as  it  is  the  earliest,  (being  three  weeks  earlier 
than  the  large  kind,)  in  a  short  season,  when  its  seeds  will 
ripen,  while  the  seeds  of  the  other  kinds  fail  to  ripen,  this 
may  prove  the  most  profitable  crop.  The  North  River  crop 
is  ordinarily  the  best  crop  ;  it  is  ten  days  earlier  than  the 
large  kind,  and  yields  about  720  pounds  of  the  brush  per 
acre — the  brush  meaning  the  dried  panicles,  cleaned  of  the 
seed,  with  eight  or  twelve  inches  of  the  stalk.  The  New 
Jersey,  or  large  kind,  yields  a  thousand  or  eleven  hundred 
pounds  of  brush  per  acre.  The  stalks  and  seeds  are  large. 
In  good  seasons,  this  is  the  most  profitable  crop.  There 
is  also  the  Shirley  or  black  brush.  Soil  rich,  alluvial  lands 
are  best  adapted  for  the  broomcorn,  more  especially  if 
warmly  situated,  protected  by  hills,  and  well  manured. 

Method  of  Planting. — The  broomcorn  is  planted  in  rows 
about  2£  or  3  feet  apart,  so  that  a  horse  may  pass  be- 
tween them  with  a  plough  or  cultivator,  or  harrow.  The 
hills  in  each  row  are  from  18  inches  to  2  feet  apart,  or 
farther,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  soil.  The  quan- 
tity of  seed  to  be  planted  is  estimated  very  differently  by 
different  farmers — some  say  that  half  a  peck  is  enough 
per  acre,  while  others  plant  half  a  bushel,  and  some  a 
bushel,  in  order  to  make  it  sure  that  the  land  shall  be 
well  stocked.  The  rule  with  some  is  to  cast  a  tea-spoon, 
ful,  or  30  or  40  seeds,  in  a  hill ;  the  manure  at  the  time 


378 

of  planting  should  be  put  in  the  hill,  and  old  manure  or 
compost  is  preferred,  as  being  most  free  from  worms. 

Cultivation. — The  broomcorn  should  be  ploughed  and 
hoed  three  times  the  last  time  when  about  three  feet  high, 
though  some  hoe  it  when  it  is  six  feet  high,  and  when  they 
are  concealed  by  it  as  they  are  toiling  in  the  field.  The 
number  of  stalks  in  a  hill  should  be  from  seven  to  ten. 
If  there  are  only  five  or  six  stalks,  they  will  be  larger  and 
coarser ;  if  there  are  about  eight,  the  brush  will  be  finer 
and  more  valuable.  In  the  first  hoeing,  the  supernumerary 
stalks  should  be  pulled  up. 

Harvesting. — As  the  frost  kills  the  seed,  the  broomcorn 
is  harvested  at  the  commencement  of  the  first  frost.  The 
long  stalks  are  bent  down  at  two  or  two  and  a  half  feet 
from  the  ground  ;  and  by  laying  those  of  two  rows  across 
each  other  obliquely,  a  kind  of  table  is  made  by  every  two 
rows,  with  a  passage  between  each  table,  for  the  conven- 
ience of  harvesting.  After  drying  for  a  few  days,  the  brush 
is  cut,  leaving  of  the  stalks  from  six  to  twelve  inches. 
The  longer  it  is  cut,  of  course,  the  more  it  will  weigh  ;  and 
if  the  purchaser  does  not  object,  the  benefit  will  accrue 
to  the  farmer.  However,  the  dry  stalk  weighs  but  little ; 
if  its  weight  is  excessive,  the  purchaser  sometimes  re- 
quires a  deduction  from  the  weight.  As  it  is  cut,  it  is 
spread  on  the  tables,  still  further  to  dry.  As  it  is  carried 
into  the  barn,  some  bind  it  in  sheaves  ;  and  this  is  a  great 
convenience  for  the  further  operation  of  extracting  the 
seed.  Others  throw  the  brush  into  the  cart  or  wagon,  un- 
bound. 

Scraping. — The  process  of  extracting  the  seed  is  called 
"  scraping  the  brush."  Two  iron  horizontal  scrapers  are 
prepared  ;  one  movable,  to  be  elevated  a  little,  so  that  a 
handful  of  brush  may  be  introduced  between  them.  The 
upper  scraper  is  then  pressed  down  wiih  one  hand,  and 
the  brush  drawn  through  with  the  other,  the  seed  being 


THE    EMIGRANT  S    HAND-BOOK. 


379 


scraped  off.  This  is  the  old  method.  A  newly  invented 
scraper  is  superseding  the  old  one.  It  is  an  upright  in- 
strument of  elastic  wood  or  steel,  inserted  in  a  bench  of  a 
convenient  height  for  the  operator. 

The  form  is  as  follows  : 

a  is  a  piece  of  wood  or  steel,  immovable  ; 
b  and  c  are  pieces  which  are  elastic,  movable 
to  the  right  and  left  at  the  top,  but  fastened  to 
the  central  piece  below.  The  degree  of  elas- 
ticity may  be  regulated  by  wedges  in  the 
planks  d  and  /—wedges  in  the  hole  through 
which  the  pieces  pass. 

A  quantity  of  brush  is  taken  in  the  hand, 
and  brought  down  upon  the  top  of  this  instru- 
ment. As  it  is  forced  down,  and  drawn  toward 
the  body,  it  separates  the  elastic  sticks  from 
the  central  piece,  but  their  elasticity  presses  sufficiently 
on  the  brush,  so  that  the  seed  is  scraped  off. 

The  advantage  of  this  scraper  is,  that  both  hands  may 
be  applied  to  the  brush,  instead  of  only  one  hand,  as  in 
the  other  kind,  and  the  elastic  power  of  nature  is  substitu- 
ted for  the  pressure  of  one  of  the  hands.  The  instrument 
also  seems  to  double  the  scraping  surface.  The  instru- 
ment was  invented  at  Hartford.  We  have  been  told  it  has 
not  been  patented 

The  following  plan  may,  therefore,  be  useful.  The 
operator  stands  at  the  end  A. 

The  lower  plank  may  rest 
on  the  barn  floor,  or  have  A 
short  legs.  The  upper  ob- 
lique has  a  hole,  through 
which  the  scraper  passes, 
and  down  which  the  seed  may  fall.  Each  side  of  the  in- 
strument, a  wedge  may  be  inserted,  to  regulate  its  elasti- 
city, or  by  some  other  contrivance  this  object  may  be 


380  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

secured.  In  scraping,  the  panicles  must  first  be  laid 
evenly  together,  and  the  stalks  taken  in  the  hand.  If 
this  is  not  done  in  the  field,  and  bundles  not  formed,  then 
must  it  be  done  with  considerable  labor  at  the  time  of 
scraping  in  the  barn. 

Product. — A  common  crop  is  seven  hundred  to  eight 
hundred  pounds  per  acre.  There  have  been  raised  one 
thousand  and  eleven  hundred  pounds  per  acre,  with  eighty 
to  one  hundred  bushels  of  seed.  The  large  kind  grows 
eleven  feet  high. 

Value  of  the  Crop. — About  the  year  1836  or  1837,  the 
brush  sold  at  12  1-2  cents  a  pound ;  and  one  farmer  in 
Northampton  sold  his  crop  standing,  unharvested,  at  one 
hundred  dollars  per  acre.  Since  then  the  price  has  been 
decreasing.  This  year  it  has  been  four  and  five  cents. 
At  six  cents,  the  farmer,  for  eight  hundred  pounds,  gets 
848  an  acre,  besides  sixty  or  severity  bushels  of  seed, 
worth  a  third  of  a  dollar  a  bushel ;  so  that  he  receives 
$70  or  upward  for  an  acre. 

Good  farmers  regard  the  seed  alone  as  equal  to  a  crop 
of  oats  from  the  same  land.  Some  land  owners  have 
rented  their  land  for  broomcorn,  at  $25  per  acre,  they 
putting  on  five  or  six  loads  of  manure. 

One  farmer,  who,  a  few  years  ago,  cultivated  fifty 
acres  in  broomcorn,  must  have  had  an  almost  unequalled 
income  for  a  New-England  farmer. 

Quantity. — In  Northampton,  probably,  two  hundred 
acres  are  raised  ;  in  Hatfield,  three  hundred  ;  in  Hadley, 
four  hundred  ;  in  other  towns,  Whateley,  Deerfield,  Green- 
field, Easthampton,  Southampton,  South  Hadley,  Spring- 
field and  Longmeadow,  perhaps  three  hundred  or  four 
hundred  more  ;  in  all,  in  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut, 
twelve  hundred  or  thirteen  hundred  acres  ;  the  product, 
in  brush  and  seed,  worth  $1,000,000. 

Manufacture  of  Brooms. — Individuals   tie  up  brooms 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  381 

with  wire  or  twine.  The  expense  is  greater  for  materials 
and  labor  when  wire  is  used. 

The  turned  broom-handles  cost,  as  delivered,  only  one 
dollar  a  hundred — one  cent  each.  The  expense  of  other 
materials  and  labor  in  making  a  broom  is  six  cents,  or  on 
the  whole  about  seven  cents.  In  a  good  broom,  a  pound  and 
a  half  of  brush  is  employed,  which  at  the  present  price  of 
five  cents,  would  be  seven  and  a  half  cents,  so  that  a  broom 
made  with  wire  costs  now  about  fourteen  and  a  half  cents. 
Brooms  are  made  with  brush  weighing  three-quarters  of 
a  pound,  one  pound,  one  pound  and  a  quarter,  and  one 
pound  and  a  half.  The  brush  is  whitened  by  the  man- 
ufacturer. It  is  placed  in  a  large  tight  box,  and  bleached 
by  the  fumes  of  sulphur  ;  but  this  process  is  said  to  weak- 
en  the  brush. 

Miscellaneous. — A  few  remarks  will  be  added,  some  of 
which  were  omitted  in  their  proper  places.  If  the  stalks 
are  cut  before  the  seed  is  ripe,  they  are  better,  stronger, 
more  durable,  than  if  cut  after  the  seed  is  ripe.  In  this 
case,  the  farmer  would  lose  the  value  of  the  seed.  He 
of  course  will  not  submit  to  this  loss,  unless  it  is  made  up 
to  him  by  the  increased  price  of  the  brush. 

The  seed  is  used  for  feeding  horses,  cattle,  and  swine. 
It  is  ground  and  mixed  with  Indian  meal,  and  is  regard- 
ed as  excellent  food — it  weighs  forty  pounds  a  bushel. 

The  brush,  when  it  is  put  in  the  barn,  should  be  placed 
on  a  scaffold,  so  as  to  be  exposed  to  a  circulation  of  the 
air,  that  it  may  dry,  and  not  mould.  For  all  the  purpo- 
ses of  use,  a  broom  made  with  twine  is  equal  to  one  made 
with  wire  ;  and  a  man  can  make  several  more  of  them 
in  a  day. 

A  CHEAP  PAINT. 

Take  one  bushel  of  unslacked  lime,  and  slack  it -with 
cold  water  ;  when  slacked,  add  to  it  20  Ibs.  of  Spanish 


382 

whiting,  17  Ibs.  of  salt,  and  12  Ibs.  of  sugar.  Strain 
this  mixture  through  a  wire  sieve,  and  it  will  be  fit  for 
use  after  reducing  with  cold  water.  This  is  intended  for 
the  outside  of  buildings,  or  where  it  is  exposed  to  the 
weather.  In  order  to  give  a  good  color,  three  coats  are 
necessary  on  brick,  and  two  on  wood.  It  may  be  laid  on 
with  a  brush  similar  to  white  wash.  Each  coat  must  have 
sufficient  time  to  dry  before  the  next  is  applied. 

For  painting  inside  walls,  take  as  before  one  bushel  of 
unslacked  lime,  3  Ibs.  of  sugar,  5  Ibs.  salt,  and  prepare 
as  above,  and  apply  with  a  brush. 

I  have  used  it  on  brick,  and  find  it  well  calculated  to 
preserve  them — it  is  far  preferable  to  oil  paint.  I  have 
also  used  it  on  wood,  and  assure  you,  that  it  will  last 
longer  on  rough  siding,  than  oil  paint  will  on  planed 
siding  or  boards. 

You  can  make  any  color  you  please.  If  you  wish  a 
straw-color,  use  yellow  ochre,  instead  of  whiting  ;  for 
lemon-color  ochre,  and  chrome  yellow  ;  for  lead  and 
slate-color,  lampblack  ;  for  blue,  indigo ;  for  green, 
chrome  green.  These  different  kinds  of  paint  will  not 
cost  more  than  one-fourth  as  much  as  oil  paints,  including 
labor  of  putting  on. 

PRESERVATIVE  COMPOSITION. 

For  a  composition  for  coloring  and  preserving  gates, 
roofs,  and  timber  generally,  from  the  weather,  melt  twelve 
ounces  of  rosin  in  an  iron  pot  or  kettle  ;  add  three  gal- 
lons of  train  oil,  and  three  or  four  rolls  of  brimstone  ; 
when  they  are  melted  and  become  thin,  add  as  much 
Spanish  brown,  (or  red  or  yellow  ochre,  or  any  other 
color  you  like,  ground  as  usual  with  oil,)  as  will  give 
the  whole  the  shade  wanted.  Then  lay  it  on  with  a  brush 
as  hot  and  as  thin  as  you  can.  Some  days  after  the  first 
coat  is  dried,  lay  on  a  second. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  383 

INCOMBUSTIBLE  WASH. 

Slack  stone  lime  in  a  large  tub  or  barrel  with  boiling 
water,  covering  the  tub  or  barrel,  to  keep  in  all  the  steam. 
When  thus  slacked,  pass  six  quarts  of  it  through  a  fine 
sieve.  It  will  then  be  in  a  state  of  fine  flour.  Now,  to 
six  quarts  of  this  lime,  add  one  quart  of  rock  or  Turk's 
Island  salt,  and  one  gallon  of  water ;  then  boil  the  mix- 
ture  and  skim  it  clean.  To  every  five  gallons  of  this 
skimmed  mixture,  add  one  pound  of  alum,  half  a  pound 
of  copperas,  by  slow  degrees  add  three- fourths  of  a  pound 
of  potash,  and  four  quarts  of  fine  sand  or  hickory  ashes, 
sifted.  We  suppose  any  kind  of  good  hard  wood  ashes 
will  answer  as  well  as  hickory.  This  mixture  will  now 
admit  of  any  coloring  matter  you  please,  and  may  be  ap- 
plied with  a  brush.  It  looks  better  than  paint,  and  is  as 
durable  as  slate.  Ft  will  stop  small  leaks  in  the  roof, 
prevent  the  moss  from  growing  over  and  rotting  the  wood, 
and  render  it  incombustible  from  sparks  falling  upon  it. 
When  laid  upon  brick  work,  it  renders  the  brick  imper- 
vious to  rain  or  wet. 

PRICE  OF  LARD,  PORK,  ETC.,  SHOWING  THE  VALUE  OF 
SWINE  TO  THE  FARMER. 

It  may  not  be  unacceptable  to  the  producer  to  learn  the 
value  of  his  commodity  in  the  market  of  exportation. 

A  New-Orleans  price  current  of  January  7th,  1843, 
quotes  lard  at  six  and  a  quarter  cents,  and  hams  at  seven 
cents.  The  question  arises,  what  is  pork  worth  to  the 
farmer  on  the  western  waters,  where  the  shipment  to 
New-Orleans  is  estimated  at  seventy-five  cents  per  bar- 
rel? 

A  fat  hog,  weighing  three  hundred  pounds,  will  furnish 
two  hams  weighing,  together,  about  forty-two  pounds, 
leaving  two  hundred  and  fifty-eight  pounds  of  pork.  If 


this  is  reduced  to  lard  by  the  most  expeditious  and  profi- 
table manner,  viz  :  by  steaming,  we  may  expect  about 
sixty  per  cent,  of  lard,  equal  to  154.80  pounds,  which,  at 

six  and  a  quarter  cents,  amounts  to $10  67 

Add  forty-two  pounds  of  ham  at  seven 

cents 82  94 

Deduct  shrinking  and  curing.   .  94 

2  00 

12  67 

Deduct  keg  or  barrel 75 

Also  freight  to  New  Orleans 67 

Commissions  and  contingencies.   ...     75 

217 

$10  50 

This  gives  $3  50  per  hundred  for  the  hog  as  dressed. 

FREIGHT  TO  EUROPE,  ETC. 

As  shipments  will  be  made  to  other  parts  of  Europe 
besides  England,  the  freight  to  Liverpool  or  Havre,  from 
New- York  and  New-Orleans,  or  Boston,  are  given  in  the 
following  table : 

Price  of  articles  in  England :  Lard,  38s.  to  43s.  per 
cwt.  ;=to  $8  36  to  $9  36. 

Cost  of  shipment  or  freight  from  Cleveland  to  Montreal, 
47  1-2  cents  per  hundred. 

Cost  from  Montreal  to  Liverpool,  about  70  cents  per 
hundred. 

Cost  to  New-Orleans  from  Cincinnati,  75  to  87  cents 
per  barrel. 

From  New-Orleans  to  New-York,  75  cents  per  barrel. 

From  Cleveland  to  New- York,  55  cents  per  hundred 
pounds. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  385 

From  New-York  to  Liverpool,  33  cents  per  hundred 
pounds. 

From  Cleveland  to  Boston,  60  cents  per  hundred 
pounds. 

From  Boston  to  Liverpool,  37  1-2  cents  per  hundred. 

From  New-Orleans  to  Liverpool,  50  cents  per  hundred 
pounds. 

EGGS;  AN  ARTICLE  OF  EXPORT 

A  method  of  preserving  EGGS,  by  packing  them  in  salt 
with  the  small  end  downward,  and  by  which  they  have 
been  kept  perfectly  good  for  eight  or  nine  months,  will, 
it  is  believed,  enable  the  inhabitants  of  portions  of  our 
country  where  these  abound,  to  make  them  profitable. 
Thousands  of 'bushels  may  be  sent  off  to  the  Atlantic 
markets.  Great  quantities  are  used  in  France  ;  and  as 
the  duty  on  them  in  England  is  so  low,  (not  two  cents 
per  dozen,)  they  might  bear  exportation.  They  have 
been  gathered  and  sold  at  the  West  as  low  as  ninety  cents 
per  bushel  :  which,  as  a  bushel  contains  forty-five  dozen, 
is 'but  two  cents  per  dozen. 

PRICE  OF  WHEAT  IN  EUROPE. 

It  may  be  gratifying  to  some  to  compare  the  transpor- 
tation of  flour,  etc,  from  Poland,  (one  of  the  greatest  grain- 
growing  districts,)  and  the  United  States,  to  England. 

From  Poland  to  Dantzic,  the  grain  is  chiefly  brought 
from  the  interior  in  flatboats  of  the  rudest  construction, 
similar  to  those  in  use  on  the  Western  waters  of  the 
United  States,  ar*  an  expense  of  twenty-five  cents  per 
bushel,  open  to  the  weather,  etc.  During  the  voyage  the 
wheat  sprouts,  and  forms  a  thick  mat  or  covering  for  the 
bulk.  On  reaching  Dantzic,  the  boat  is  broken  up  and 
sold,  the  wheat  taken  out  and  dried  in  the  fields,  then 
stored  in  the  warehouses  at  an  expense  of  six  cents  per 
17 


386  THE    FARMER  S    AND, 

bushel.  From  Dantzic  to  England,  the  freight,  etc,  not 
including  the  duty,  is  eight  pence — equal  to  about  fifteen 
cents  per  bushel ;  making  in  all  about  forty-six  cents  per 
bushel.  From  Illinois  to  Liverpool,  the  whole  freight 
would  be  14s.  per  quarter,  or  Is.  9d. — equal  to  thirty- eight 
cents  per  bushel ;  being  about  eight  cents  in  favor  of  Il- 
linois. Tfiere  are  costs  and  charges  also,  in  both  cases, 
which  would,  probably,  be  in  favor  of  our  export. 

In  this  connection,  it  may  be  interesting  to  compare  a 
detailed  estimate  of  the  export  of  wheat  from  Illinois  to 
England,  both  by  New-Orleans  and  Canada. 

ILLINOIS    WHEAT,    VIA  NEW-ORLEANS    TO    LIVERPOOL. 

Wheat,  four  and  three-quarter  bushels  at  50  cents  is $2  37 

Grinding  and  barreling,  (with  offal,) ., 50 

Freight  to  New- Orleans 62 

Freight  to  Liverpool 66 

$415 

which  is  little  less  than  ninety  cents.  Charges  would  be 
alike  in  both  cases. 

View  the  matter  in  another  point  of  light.  Suppose  We 
carry  our  grain  or  flour  through  Canada,  and  pay,  after 
the  5th  of  July,  3s.  on  an  imperial  quarter,  viz:  eight 
bushels,  which  is  about  eight  one-third  cents  per  bushel ! 
Foreign  wheat  would  have  to  pay,  at  the  present  sliding 
rule,  sixty  cents  per  bushel.  Could  they  compete  with 
us? 

We  therefore  could  succeed  with  the  greatest  competi- 
tor; but  that  competitor  cannot  supply  one  and  a  half 
million  of  bushels,  less  than  the  surplus  of  some  of  the 
smaller  States  of  this  Union  produce  ;  and,  indeed,  all 
Europe  could  not  supply  England  with  more  than  eight- 
een millions  bushels,  under  the  most  favorable  circum- 
stances— about  three- fourths  as  much  as  the  State  of  Ohio 
now  furnishes. 


EHE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  387 

It  may  be  remarked,  too,  that  the  crops  on  the  continent 
are  far  more  precarious  than  those  of  the  United  States ; 
and  hence  the  continental  Governments  find  it  necessary, 
and  are  careful  to  reserve  large  granaries,  to  guard 
against  such  a  misfortune  as  a  failure  of  the  usual  har- 
vest. Exportation  thence  is  also  forbidden  in  certain 
cases,  but  in  the  United  States  no  such  prohibition  exists. 

While,  therefore,  we  may  look  with  confidence  to  ad- 
vantages in  our  favor  in  the  British  market,  we  must  re- 
member that  we  have  to  compete  against  almost  unpaid 
labor,  and  cannot  expect  a  great  profit  on  our  culture, 
unless  the  very  cheapest  mode  of  production  is  studied. 
Labor  (as  we  have  before  remarked,)  must  doubtless  fall 
very  considerably  in  agricultural  districts,  or  else  farmers 
and  planters  cannot  hire. 

TO  PREVENT  SMUT  IN  WHEAT. 

On  the  2nd  of  April,  1742,  I  prepared,  says  a  sensible 
writer,  eight  bushels  of  wheat  for  seed,  as  follows  :  A 
brine  was  made  strong  enough  to  bear  up  an  egg,  and  in 
quantity  sufficient  to  wash  a  bushel  at  once.  The  wheat 
was  put  into  the  brine,  and  everything  that  would  swim 
skimmed  off  and  thrown  away.  It  was  then  taken  out, 
and  a  sufficient  quantity  of  lime  sifted  on  to  it  to  make  it 
dry.  It  was  allowed  to  remain  in  this  state  in  a  box  until 
the  6th,  by  which  time  some  of  it  had  begun  to  sprout, 
when  it  was  sown.  On  the  night  of  the  6th  it  began  to 
rain,  and  continued  to  rain  all  the  next  day,  and  the  birds 
were  so  thick  upon  the  wheat  that  1  feared  I  should  be. 
obliged  to  sow  it  over  ;  consequently  I  dragged  it  in  while 
it  was  raining  on  the  7th.  The  ground  was  very  wet  in 
consequence  of  the  water  that  had  fallen  since  the  wheat 
was  sown,  and  some  of  my  neighbors  prophesied  that  I 
would  have  a  large  crop  of  smut,  saying  that  smut  was 


398 

caused  by  putting  in  wheat  in  wet  weather.  The  wheat 
being  harvested  and  thrashed,  the  product  was  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty-five  bushels  that  was  saved,  considerable 
being  lost  by  thrashing  on  the  ground.  The  seed  was 
very  foul  and  smutty — the  product  was  perfectly  free 
from  smut  and  other  foul  stuff,  and  of  a  superior  quality. 
Part  of  the  ground  had  wheat  on  the  year  before,  and  a 
part  corn.  The  number  of  bushels  is  not  mentioned  as 
being  a  great  yield.  One  of  my  neighbors,  from  whom 
I  obtained  the  seed,  sowed  the  same  kind  without  any 
preparation,  on  the  5th  of  the  same  month,  the  product 
of  which  was  very  smutty,  and  otherwise  foul. 

TABLE. 

A  box  24  inches  by  16  inches  square,  and  28  inches 
deep,  will  contain  a  barrel,  or  10,  752  cubic  inches. 

A  box  24  inches,  by  16  inches  square,  14  inches  deep, 
will  contain  a  half  barrel,  5,376  cubic  inches. 

A  box  16  inches  by  16  8-10  inches  square,  and  8  in- 
ches deep,  will  contain  a  bushel,  or  2,150  4-10,  cubic  in- 
ches. 

A  box  12  inches  by  11  2-10  inches  square,  and  8  in- 
ches deep,  will  contain  a  half-bushel,  or  1,075  2-10  cubic 
inches. 

A  box  8  inches  by  8  4-10  inches  square,  and  8  in- 
ches deep,  will  contain  one  peck,  or  537  7-10  cubic  in- 
ches. 

A  box  8  inches  by  8  inches  square,  and  4  2-10  inches 
deep,  will  contain  one  half- peck,  or  286  8-10  cubic  in- 
ches. 

A  box  7  inches  by  4  inches  square,  and  4  8-10  inches 
deep,  will  contain  half  a  gallon,  134  4-10  cubic  inches. 

A  box  4  inches  by  4  inches  square,  and  4  2-10  inches 
deep,  will  contain  one  quart,  67  2-210  cubic  inches. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  389 

These  measures  all  corne  within  a  small  fraction  of  a 
cubic  inch  of  being  perfectly  accurate,  as  near,  indeed, 
as  any  measures  of  capacity  have  ever  yet  been  made  for 
common  use  ;  the  difficulty  of  making  them  with  abso- 
lute exactness,  has  never  yet  been  overcome. 

MEASURING  CORN. 

The  following  rule  for  ascertaining  the  quantity  of 
shelled  corn  in  a  house  of  any  dimensions,  is  by  William 
Murray,  Esq.  of  South  Carolina,  and  was  read  before  the 
St.  John's  Collection  Agricultural  Society,  and  commu- 
nicated by  them  for  publication  in  the  Southern  Agricul- 
turist. 

Rule. — Having  previously  levelled  the  corn  in  the 
house,  so  that  it  will  be  of  equal  depth  throughout,  ascer- 
taining the  length,  and  breadth,  and  depth  of  the  bulk  ; 
multiply  these  dimensions  together,  and  their  products  by 
four,  then  cut  ofFone  figure  from  the  right  of  this  last  pro- 
duct. This  will  give  so  many  bushels  and  a  decimal  of 
a  bushel  of  shelled  corn.  If  it  be  required  to  find  the  quan- 
tity of  eared  corn,  substitute  eight  for  four,  and  cut  off 
one  figure  as  before. 

Example. — In  a  bulk  of  corn  in  the  ear,  measuring  12 
feet  long,  11  feet  broad,  and  6  feet  deep,  there  will  be 
316  bushels  and  eight-tenths  of  a  bushel  of  shelled  corn, 
or  633  bushels  and  six-tenths  of  ear  corn,  as  : 
12  12 

11  11 

132  132 

6  6 

792  792 

4  8 

316,8  633,6 


390 

The  decimal  4  is  used  when  the  object  is  to  find  the 
quantity  in  shelled  corn,  because  that  decimal  is  half 
of  the  decimal  8,  and  it  requires  two  bushels  of  ear  corn 
to  make  one  of  shelled  corn.  In  using  these  rules,  a  half 
a  bushel  may  be  added  for  every  hundred  ;  that  amount 
of  ears  results  from  the  substitution  of  the  decimals. 

The  term,  "  barrel  of  corn ,"  so  much  used  by  Souther- 
ners, means  five  bushels  of  shelled  corn. 

TO  CURE  SHEEP  SKINS  WITH  THE  WOOL  ON. 

Taks  a  spoonful  of  alum  and  two  of  saltpetre  ;  pulve- 
rize and  mix  well  together,  then  sprinkle  the  powder  on 
the  flesh  side  of  the  skin,  and  lay  the  two  flesh  sides  to- 
gether,  leaving  the  wool  outside.  Then  fold  up  the  skin 
as  tight  as  you  can.  and  hang  it  in  a  dry  place.  In  two 
or  three  days,  as  soon  as  it  is  dry,  take  it  down  and  scrape 
it  with  a  blunt  knife,  till  clean  and  supple.  This  com- 
pletes the  process,  and  makes  you  a  most  excellent  sad- 
dle cover.  If,  when  you  kill  your  mutton,  you  treat  the 
skins  this  way,  you  can  get  more  for  them  from  the  sad- 
dler, than  you  can  get  for  the  wool  and  skin  separately 
disposed  of  otherwise. 

Other  skins  which  you  desire  to  cure  with  the  fur  or 
hair  on,  may  be  treated  in  the  same  way. 

DESTRUCTION  OF  WEEDS. 

There  are  few  things  more  essential  to  the  farmer  than 
having  a  good  wheat  crop.  He  gets  a  better  price  for 
his  grain,  and  what  is  quite  as  much,  he  has  no  fears  from 
injury  in  using  such  pure  wheat  for  seed.  Weeding  wheat, 
therefore,  is  not  to  be  neglected.  In  a  wheat  field,  every- 
thing that  is  no:  wheat  is  a  weed,  and  should  be  pulled 
out  at  once.  Remember  that  a  rank  thrifty  weed,  chess, 
cockle,  stemkrout,  etc.,  draws  sufficient  nutriment  from 
the  crop  to  sustain  a  handful  of  good  ears  of  wheat,  and 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  391 

which  belong  to  them.  Thorough  summer  fallowing  is 
the  best  eradicator  of  weeds  ;  but  if  any  escape  and  spring 
up,  they  should  be  carefully  gathered  and  destroyed  before 
the  seed  ripens. 

Let  no  weed  ripen  its  seed  on  your  farm,  if  it  can  be 
prevented.  The  thistle,  johnswort,  and  similar  pests,  are 
left  so  long  in  many  cases  before  they  are  cut,  that  they 
mature  their  seeds,  and  these  do  as  much  mischief  as  if 
allowed  to  stand  and  ripen,  while  the  labor  of  cutting  them 
is  nearly  lost.  The  best  way  to  treat  them  is  to  rake  and 
burn  them  as  soon  as  dry.  This  destroys  their  power  of 
mischief  effectually.  It  is  very  bad  policy  to  put  weeds, 
whether  cut  with  your  hay  or  grain,  into  your  barn,  as 
the  manure  of  the  yard  will  be  filled  with  seeds,  ready  to 
spring  up  whenever  and  wherever  it  is  applied  to  the  soil. 
There  are  thousands  of  farms  in  this  country,  the  produc- 
tive value  of  which,  both  in  grain  and  grass,  is  lessened 
full  twenty-five  percent,  in  consequence  of  the  vile  weeds 
with  which  they  are  infested.  Sowing  spring  grains, 
such  as  spring  wheat,  barley,  or  oats,  has  had  a  bad  effect 
in  extending  the  growth  of  weeds,  and  in  many  places  the 
system  must  give  way  to  summer  fallowing,  or  cropping 
will  be  impossible. 

FATTENING  ANIMALS. 

There  are  some  rules  which  may  be  advantageously 
adopted  in  feeding  animals,  which,  however  obvious  they 
may  be,  are  too  often  passed  over,  or  neglected.  Some 
of  these  will  be  specified;  and 

1st.  The  preparation  of  Food. — This  should  be  so 
prepared,  that  its  nutritive  properties  may  be  all  made 
available  to  the  use  of  the  animal,  and  not  only  so,  but 
appropriated  by  the  least  possible  expenditure  of  muscular 
energy.  The  ox  that  is  obliged  to  wander  over  an  acre 
to  get  the  food  he  should  find  on  two  or  three  square  rods; 


392  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

the  horse  that  is  two  or  three  hours  eating  the  coarse  food 
he  would  swallow  in  fifteen  minutes,  if  the  grain  was 
ground,  or  the  hay  cut  as  it  should  be ;  the  sheep  that  spends 
hours  in  making  its  way  into  a  turnip,  when,  if  it  was 
sliced,  it  would  eat  it  in  as  many  minutes ;  the  pig  that 
eats  raw  potatoes,  or  whole  corn,  when  either  cooked 
could  be  eaten  in  one  quarter  of  the  time  now  used,  may 
indeed  fatten,  but  much  less  rapidly  than  if  their  food  was 
given  them  in  a  proper  manner.  All  food  should  be  given 
to  fattening  animals  in  such  a  state,  that  as  little  time  and 
labor  as  possible,  on  the  part  of  the  animal,  shall  be  re- 
quired in  eating. 

2nd.  The  food  should  be  in  abundance. — -From  the  time 
the  fattening  process  commences,  until  the  animal  is 
slaughtered,  he  should  never  be  without  food.  Health 
and  appetite  are  best  promoted  by  change  of  food,  rather 
than  by  limiting  the  quantity.  The  animal  that  is  stuffed 
and  starved  by  turns,  may  have  streaked  meat,  but  it  will 
be  made  too  slowly  for  the  pleasure  or  profit  of  the  good 
farmer. 

3rd.  The  food  should  be  given  regularly. — This  is  one 
of  the  most  essential  points  in  feeding  animals.  If  given 
irregularly,  the  animal  indeed  consumes  his  food,  but  he 
soon  acquires  a  restless  disposition,  is  disturbed  at  every 
appearance  of  his  feeder,  and  is  never  in  that  quiet  state 
so  necessary  to  the  taking  on  of  fat.  It  is  surprising  how 
readily  any  animal  acquires  habits  of  regularity  in  feed- 
ing, and  how  soon  the  influence  of  this  is  felt  in  the  im- 
provement of  his  condition.  When  at  the  regular  hour 
the  pig  has  had  his  pudding,  or  the  sheep  his  turnips, 
they  compose  themselves  to  rest,  with  the  consciousness 
that  their  digestion  is  not  to  be  unseasonably  disturbed,  or 
their  quiet  broken  by  unwonted  invitation  to  eat. 

4th.   The  animal  should  not  be  needlessly  intruded  upon 
between  the  hours  of  feeding. — All  creatures  fatten  much 


393 

faster  in  the  dark  than  in  the  light,  a  fact  only  to  be  ac- 
counted for  by  their  great  quiet.  Some  of  those  creatures 
that  are  the  most  irritable  and  impatient  of  restraint  while 
feeding,  such  as  turkeys  and  geese,  are  found  to  take  on 
fat  rapidly  when  confined  in  dark  rooms,  and  fed  at  stated 
hours  by  hand.  There  is  no  surer  proof  that  a  pig  is  do- 
ing well,  than  to  see  him  eat  his  meal  quickly  and  then 
retire  to  his  bed,  to  sleep  or  cogitate  until  the  hour  of 
feeding  returns.  Animals  while  fattening  should  never 
be  alarmed,  never  rapidly  driven,  never  be  fed  at  unseas- 
onable hours,  and,  above  all  things,  never  be  allowed  to 
«vant  for  food. 

OPODELDOC,  OR  CAMPHORATED  SOAP  LINIMENT. 

Take  common  white  soap,  three  ounces ;  camphor,  one 
ounce;  oil  of  rosemary,  oil  of  origanum,  of  each  one -third 
ounce ;  alcohol,  one  pint ;  cut  the  soap  fine,  and,  with  a 
gentle  heat,  dissolve  it  in  the  alcohol  in  which  the  other 
articles  had  been  previously  dissolved.  Pour  into  wide- 
mouthed  vials  or  jars  to  cool. 

If  LIQUID  OPODELDOC  is  preferred,  take  two  ounces  of 
Castile  soap,  in  place  of  three  ounces  of  common  soap. 
Troy  ounces  are  designated.  If  not  practicable  to  have 
the  articles  weighed  by  that  standard,  bear  in  mind  that 
the  Troy  ounce  is  nearly  equal  to  1  1-9  ounce  Avoir- 
dupois. . 

Opodeldoc,  made  according  to  the  above  recipes,  is  al- 
together superior  to  that  usually  sold  in  vials  at  exorbitant 
prices. 

BRITISH  OIL.— Take  spirits  of  turpentine  and  linseed 
oil,  of  each  half  a  pint ;  oil  of  amber,  oil  of  juniper,  and 
mineral  tar,  of  each  one  gill. 

OIL  OF  SPIKC,  or  a  mixture  commonly  sold  under  that 
name,  is  nothing  but  spirits  of  turpentine,  mineral  tar,  and 
some  essential  oil,  added  in  various  proportions.  The 


394  THE    FARMER'S   AND 

fallowing  is  a  good  recipe  for  its  preparation  :  Take  spirits 
of  turpentine,  one  pint ;  mineral  tar,  half  a  pint ;  oil  of 
amber,  three  ounces  ;  oil  of  rosemary,  one  ounce. 

ITEMS  IN  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY. 

Use  spirits  of  turpentine  to  remove  grease  spots  from 
clothes.  It  dissolves  the  grease,  and  then  soap  the  more 
easily  removes  it.  Grease  may  be  removed  from  undyed 
woollen  by  a  solution  of  pearlash. 

Lime  spots  on  woollen  may  be  completely  removed  by 
strong  vinegar.  The  vinegar  effectually  neutralizes  the 
lime,  but  does  not  generally  affect  the  color  of  the  cloth. 
Dark  cloth,  the  color  of  which  has  been  completely  de- 
stroyed in  spots  six  inches  square,  has  thus  had  its  original 
color  completely  restored. 

The  whiteness  of  ivory-handled  knives  may  be  restored 
by  rubbing  them  with  fine  sand-paper  or  emery. 

The  oftener  carpets  are  shaken,  the  longer  they  last,  as 
the  particles  of  sand  which  collect  upon  them  grind  the 
threads.  Sweeping  them  also  wears  them. 

Dry  wood  will  produce,  on  a  moderate  estimate,  twice 
as  much  heat  as  the  amount  of  green  wood  ;  and  saves 
much  trouble  in  kindling  fires  on  cold  mornings.  To  pre- 
vent its  burning  away  too  rapidly,  the  sticks  should  be  large. 
To  suppose  that  green  wood  would  actually  cause  more 
heat  in  burning  than  dry,  is  as  absurd  as  to  suppose  that 
a  vessel  of  hot  water  will  freeze  sooner  than  a  cold  one. 

FOREIGN  MONEYS, 

WITH     THEIR     VALUES,     AS     ESTABLISHED    AT    THE     CUSTOM 
HOUSE,    BY    LAW. 

Dollars. 

Aux  Cay es,  8i  livres  are  equal  to         -         -         -         -       1.00 
Blue  or  current  dollar  of  Denmark,  according  to  the  ex- 
change of  London. 
Cayenne,  8  livres  5  sols  of,  are  equal  to    - 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK. 

Dollars. 

80 
Ducat  of  Naples         ...  • 

Franc  of  France     -  ' ^* 

Florin  of  Trieste         -  " 

Genoa,  6*  livres  are  taken  as 

Guadaloupe,  8  livres  and  5  sols    -         -  '^ 

Guilder  of  Antwerp         - 

Crefelt  - 

Frankfort,  and  others  of  the  24  florin  rate  - 

'«         Holland 

Nuremburg     -  -         -         -         '  ^ 

"         St.  Gall    -  .g 

"         Trieste  " 

United  Netherlands      -         -         -  ' 

Livre  of  France  -----  '2g 

Geneva       -  -100 

«         Genoa,  6|  livres      -  ' 

Leghorn,  6$  livres       - 
Louis  d'or  rixdollar         -        '•' 
Marc  Banco  of  Hamburg    -         - 
Milrea  of  Brazil,  according  to  rate  of  exchange. 
Milrea  of  Madeira      -  .1.24 

Portugal        -         -  "  2'4g 

Ounce  of  Sicily  '    _         Q  9Q  ?6_100 

S^^^^W^ 

Pound  sterling  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland^    -    ^       4.»u 

.   Antigua      -  ' 
«               Barbadoes        -         • 

««               Bermuda    -         -  _ 

»               Halifax  -  '    .       3.00 

«               Jamaica       -  .  2  50 

New  Providence      -  '1Q 

Rial  plate  of  Spain    -  '     .   "     .         -      .05 

Velon  of  Spain     -                                     "...  .77 

Rix-dollar  of  Bremen                                  ^  l  Q0 

Denmark  _    Q  6g  29_100 

«<             Berlin,  current  _  ^^ 

««             Hamburg  _      ^g  29-100 

«             Prussia  _         _      69 

«  Saxony     - 


396  THE  FARMER  s  AND 

Dollars, 

Rix.dollar  of  Sweden 1.00 

Ruble  of  Russia,  according  to  the  exchange  between  London 

and  St.  Petersburg. 
Rupee  of  Bombay,  Calcutta,  and  Sicca,  each      -  .50 

Madras,  103=100  Sicca  rupees 
Star  pagoda  of  India       ----.,-  1.84 

St.  Bartholomew's,  8s.  3d.  -         -         -         -         -         .        1.00 

St.  Kitt's,  9s.  .......  1.00 

Tale  of  China    -         -.----.       1.48 

In  Canada,  money  is  reckoned  in  Halifax  currency,  a 
pound  Halifax  being  16s.  8d.  sterling  ;  thus  making  £100 
sterling,  £120  currency. 

The  legal  value  of  a  British  sovereign  in  Canada,  is 
24s.  4d.  Halifax.  It  usually  passes  in  trade  at  about  two 
pence  currency,  higher. 

RATES  OF  POSTAGE. 

ABSTRACT   OF    THE    POST    OFFICE    LAW,   PASSED    MARCH   3.    1849. 

Cents. 

LETTERS,  not  over  half  an  ounce,  not  exceeding  300  miles, ....     5 

"  "  "  "       exceeding  300  miles, 10 

"         over  half  an  ounce,  and  not  over  an  ounce,  double  price. 
Any  fractional  excess  over  an  ounce,  always  counted  an  ounce. 

SHIP  LETTERS,  delivered  where  received, 6 

"  if  conveyed  by  mail,  in  addition  to  the  postage, .   .     2 

deposited  in  a  post  office  for  ship, 1 

HANDBILLS,  CIRCULARS,  and  ADVERTISEMENTS,  not  exceeding  one 

sheet,  unsealed,  any  distance,  (to  be  prepaid,) 3 

NEWSPAPERS,  sent  from  office  of  publication,  not  exceeding  1900 

sq.  inches,  under  100  miles,  or  within  the  State,  .     1 

"  over  100  miles,  and  out  of  the  State, 1£ 

"  over  1900  square  inches,  same  rate  as  pamphlets. 

"  Transient  papers,  the  same  rates,  to  be  prepaid. 

PAMPHLETS,  of  all  kinds,  not  exceeding  one  ounce  a  copy,  ....     2£ 

for  each  additional  ounce, 1 

"  A  fractional  excess,  if  less  than  a  half  ounce,  is  not 

counted;  if  a  half  ounce  or  more,  it  is  counted  an  ounce. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  397 

FOREIGN  AND  SEA  POSTAGE. 

Cents. 

LETTERS  for  the  U.  States'  territories  on  the  Pacific,  a  single  half 

ounce  or  less,  (prepaid  or  not,) .  .  40 

"         for  Havana,  (to  be  prepaid,) 12£ 

for  Chagres,      "  "         20 

for  Panama,      "  "         30 

"         from  any  post  office  in  the  United  States,  to  or  from  G. 
Britain  or  Ireland,  by  American  or  English  stearrrers, 
for  a  single  half  ounce  or  less,  (prepaid  or  not,)  ...  24 
"         for  Bremen,  by  American  steamers,  a  half  ounce  or  less, 

(prepaid  or  not — the  usual  inland  postage  to  be  added,)  24 
"         for  other  foreign  countries,  if  sent  by  British  steamers, 

U.  S.  inland  postage,  any  distance,  on  a  half  ounce, .     5 
An  ounce,  of  course,  will  be  double,  (to  be  prepaid,)  or  10 
"         if  sent  by  American  steamers,  to  go  through  the  British 
mail,  the  whole  postage,  from  any  U.  S.  post  office, 

for  a  single  half  ounce,  (to  be  prepaid,)  is 21 

"         for  France,  Spain,  Holland,  and  the  Netherlands,  if  sent 
by  American  steamers,  must  be  prepaid. 

NEWSPAPERS,  sea-postage,  besides  inland,  both  prepaid, 3 

"  from  any  U.  S.  post  office,  to  or  from  Great  Britain 

or  Ireland,  both  prepaid, 2 

BLUE  GRASS. 

Blue  grass  will  grow  upon  any  of  the  soils  of  Illinois, 
but  it  delights  in  a  moist  situation.  Hence  swails,  level 
or  wet  prairie,  bottom-land  and  barrens,  are  best  adapted 
to  its  cultivation.  It  suffers  in  the  heat  of  summer  upon 
the  rolling  prairie,  unless  mixed  with  clover,  which,  by 
its  broad  leaves,  protects  the  roots  of  blue  grass  from  the 
rays  of  the  sun,  or  unless  it  is  suffered  to  grow  unmolest- 
ed, in  which  case  it  protects  itself.  Close  feeding  in  the 
summer  will  keep  it  short  and  stunted,  until  the  fall  rains 
set  in. 

Sowing. — The  seed  ripens  the  1st  of  July.  Hence  any 
time  after  that,  until  October,  will  answer  for  sowing. 
It  is  better  that  it  should  get  a  start  in  the  fall,  as  it  does 
better  the  succeeding  season.  It  will  not  generally  make 


398 

a  sward  for  itself  in  less  than  two  years  ;  hence  it  should 
be  sown  with  other  grasses,  such  as  timothy  or  clover,  or 
both.  Were  I  to  set  ten  acres  in  blue  grass,  I  should 
pursue  the  following  method.  Prepare  the  ground  for 
wheat  and  make  it  smooth  ;  lake  1  peck  of  timothy,  4 
quarts  of  clover,  and  4  quarts  of  blue  grass  seed,  and 
mix  them  ;  sow  one  peck  of  the  mixture  about  the  1st  of 
September,  or  later.  If  sowed  without  fall  grain,  and 
the  season  be  at  all  favorable,  a  fine  crop  of  timothy  and 
clover  may  be  cut  the  succeeding  summer.  Some  prefer 
to  omit  the  clover  until  spring  ;  in  which  case  it  escapes 
danger  from  the  winter.  The  blue  grass  will  hardly  show 
itself  the  first  season,  and  those  unacquainted  with  it 
will  be  apt  to  suppose  that  their  seed  was  bad,  or  that  it 
had  not  come  up.  The  second  season,  I  would  pasture 
it  with  cattle  or  horses.  This  mode  will  have  a  tendency 
to  kill  out  the  clover  and  timothy,  and  in  the  fall  of  that 
season  the  blue  grass  will  show  itself.  The  lealha  (as 
the  English  call  it,)  of  cattle,  seems  to  be  necessary  to 
bring  them  forth  thriftily,  or  it  may  be  that  the  mere  tram- 
ping the  ground  has  a  beneficial  effect  upon  it. 

Seed. — What  is  called  stripped  seed,  is  the  kind  com- 
monly found  in  market.  Some  sell  what  is  commonly 
called  cleaned  seed,  but  it  has  all  the  chaff  in  it,  and  is  only 
separated  from  the  seed  stems.  The  stripped  seed  is 
preferred,  as  its  elasticity  prevents  its  suffering  with  damp- 
ness, as  the  clean  seed  sometimes  does.  Great  care  is 
requisite  in  obtaining  the  seed,  as  it  frequently  loses  its 
vital  qualities  by  storage  in  damp  warehouses.  Before 
using  the  stripped  seed,  rub  it  through  a  common  wire 
meal  sieve.  This  comminuates  it,  and  permits  its  distri- 
bution among  other  seeds  with  which  you  sow  it. 

Blue  grass  will  grow  on  the  unbroken  prairie,  but  will 
not  show  itself  until  the  prairie  grass  has  been  killed  out 
by  pasturing.  I  presume  in  point  of  fact,  that  blue  grass 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  399 

sowed  at  any  season  of  the  year,  in  any  manner,  and 
upon  any  kind  of  soil,  will  grow  and  flourish,  sooner  or 
later,  according  to  circumstances.  Tramping  the  ground 
at  intervals  is  of  prime  necessity  to  bring  it  out,  as  far 
as  my  observation  extends.  Blue  grass  spreads  very 
rapidly  by  its  roots,  as  well  as  by  the  annual  seed. 

Blue  grass  pastures,  as  well  as  others,  will  become 
what  is  called  hide-bound,  in  the  course  of  years.  In  such 
a  case,  a  sharp  harrow,  well  loaded  and  dragged  over  it, 
so  as  to  tear  the  sod  materially,  or  a  scarifier  which  should 
cut  two  or  three  inches  in  depth,  will  produce  the  best 
effects.  In  truth,  all  our  grasses  are  as  much  improved 
by  cultivation,  in  frequently  tearing  the  roots,  as  any  of  our 
grains  or  vegetables.  The  best  time  for  the  operation  is 
late  in  the  fall ;  but  the  spring  will  answer,  if  done 
early. 

From  the  Union  Agriculturist 

BREAKING   PRAIRIE. 

MR.  SECRETARY  : 

I  had  long  since  intended  to  have  redeemed  my  pro- 
mise, to  communicate  to  you  such  observations  as  may 
have  occurred  to  me  in  my  agricultural  pursuits,  and  may 
be  deemed  interesting  or  useful  to  the  farming  communi- 
ty ;  but  circumstances  have  hitherto  prevented  me. 

Prairie  Farming,  its  difficulties. — When  I  commenced 
making  a  farm  on  the  prairie,  I  found  myself  engaged  in 
a  task  by  no  means  without  its  difficulties  and  perplexi- 
ties. Whatever  I  had  learned  of  farming  at  the  East, 
had  to  be  principally  learned  over  again  here.  It  is  true, 
that  making  fences,  erecting  buildings,  etc.,  are  matters 
of  not  so  much  difficulty,  nor  is  there  anything  very  pe- 
culiar in  the  process  here  ;  but  it  is  in  opening  the  farm, 
in  cultivating  the  soil,  and  in  the  whole  process  of  raising 
the  crop,  that  Western  experience  is  wanted.  I  looked 


400 

in  vain  for  the  result  of  well  tested  and  enlightened 
experiments;  and  I  sensibly — deeply  felt,  the  want  of 
just  such  a  journal  as  I  hope  your  paper  will  prove.  It 
is  true,  I  found  myself  surrounded  by  a  class  of  enlight- 
ened, intelligent,  industrious  and  prosperous  farmers,  of 
whom  T  embraced  every  opportunity  to  learn  what  I  might 
of  my  new  business  ;  nor  did  I  experience  any  want  of 
kindness  on  their  part  to  inform  me.  What  was  the  re- 
sult? 

Breaking  Prairie. — Of  course  among  the  first  objects, 
was  to  get  some  prairie  broken  ;  and  to  that  subject  were 
my  inquiries  directed.  What  was  the  season  of  the  year 
in  which  to  break  prairie  ?  How  deep  should  it  be  broken  ? 
With  what  team  could  it  be  most  profitably  done,  taking 
into  the  account  the  expense  and  quality  of  the  work  ? 
In  answer  to  all  these  questions,  I  received  answers  dif- 
fering very  widely  from  each  other,  from  men  of  perhaps 
equal  experience  and  intelligence.  In  reply  to  the  first 
inquiry,  some  said,  commence  breaking  as  soon  as  the 
ground  is  sufficiently  dry  in  the  spring,  but  be  sure  that 
you  stop  the  plough  by  the  first  of  July.  Others  assured 
me,  that  no  consideration  should  induce  me  to  break  ex- 
cept in  the  month  of  June  ;  while  others  recommended 
July  as  well  as  June ;  and  many  assured  me  that  break- 
ing might  profitably  be  contiriued  till  September,  should 
circumstances  permit.  An  equal  contrariety  of  opinion 
was  observed  in  answer  to  the  other  inquiries.  What 
was  to  be  done  amid  such  a  variety  of  opinion — such  a 
multitude  of  contradictory  advice  ?  Yet,  even  here,  I 
found  safety  in  a  multitude  of  counsel.  I  pursued  my 
inquiries,  and  ascertained  the  reason  assigned  by  each  for 
the  opinion  which  he  gave,  and  found  that  each  conclu- 
sion was  deduced  from  a  reasonable  cause  ;  but  without 
going  into  the  particular  experience  of  each  one,  I  will 
state  briefly  the  conclusions  to  which  I  have  arrived  from 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  401 

my  own  experience  arid  observation,  assisted  by  what  I 
have  been  able  to  learn  from  others. 

For  a  Spring  Crap. — If  it  be  intended  to  raise  a  spring 
crop  the  first  year,  and  especially  corn,  it  is  advisable  to 
start  the  plough  as  soon  as  the  grass  has  started  sufficient- 
ly to  afford  a  good  bite.  By  this  time,  in  ordinary  sea- 
sons, the  ground  will  be  sufficiently  dry,  and  the  plough 
may  be  kept  going  as  late  as  it  will  do  to  put  in  the  crop. 
The  crop  will  be  found  to  be  best  on  the  land  first  bro- 
ken ;  but  the  best  year,  it  will  be  found  that  the  land  last 
broken  is  in  much  the  best  condition. 

For  a  Fall  Crop. — If  a  fall  crop  is  intended,  the  break- 
ing should  not  commence  till  about  the  first  of  June,  and 
may  be  continued  till  the  middle  of  August ;  and  in  very 
dry  seasons,  perhaps  a  month  later.  It  will  almost  inva- 
riably be  found,  that  the  land  first  broken  will  afford  the 
best  crop,  and  nearly  twice  the  quantity  may  be  expected 
from  land  broken  in  June,  that  will  be  realized  from  land 
broken  in  September  ;  so  that  it  will  be  readily  perceiv- 
ed, if  the  time  can  be  otherwise  profitably  employed, 
it  is  not  advisable  to  continue  breaking  so  late  as  that 
time. 

Crop  on  the  Sod. — If  it  is  proposed  to  raise  a  spring  or 
fall  crop  on  the.sod,  the  prairie  should,  by  all  means,  be 
broken  as  deep  as  possible,  say  from  four  to  five  inches  at 
least.  AH  who  have  had  any  experience  in  prairie  farm- 
ing, are  well  aware  that  the  sward  is  composed  of  a  strong 
tenacious  mass  of  grass  roots,  firmly  interwoven  together, 
near  the  surface  of  which  there  is,  comparatively,  but 
very  little  earthy  substance  to  be  found,  and  that  little  so 
firmly  compressed  and  bound  up,  that  it  can  afford  but 
very  little  nourishment  to  the  growing  crop.  Hence  the 
necessity  of  ploughing  deep,  in  order  to  obtain  sufficient 
mould  to  sustain  the  crop,  will  be  readily  perceived.  I* 


402 

is  true,  that  it  requires  a  very  considerable  more  force  to 
break  deep  than  it  does  to  break  shallow  ;  perhaps  more 
than  would  be  at  first  imagined  ;  but  then  you  are  com- 
pensated for  that,  by  the  greater  ease  and  facility  with 
which  the  land  is  ploughed  the  second  time ;  because  if 
the  land  is  broken  shallow,  it  is  necessary  to  go  below  the 
first  breaking,  when  you  cross-plough  or  split  the  furrows, 
(which  is  perhaps  the  better  practice,)  and  hence  you  are 
compelled  to  cut  off  all  of  the  old  roots  again,  while  they 
are  yet  sufficiently  strong  to  afford  considerable  resist- 
ance. 

If  no  crop  is  intended  to  be  grown  the  first  year  upon 
the  piece  broken,  the  team  should  not  be  started  till  about 
the  first  of  June  ;  nor  if  practicable  should  it  be  continued 
longer  than  about  six  weeks.  And  I  believe  it  is  univer- 
sally admitted,  that  land  broken  in  June  decays  much 
faster,  and  a  better  crop  may  be  observed,  even  for  several 
years,  than  on  land  broken  much  earlier  or  later.  The 
two  principal  reasons  for  this  are,  that  the  grass  is  at  this 
time  growing  with  full  vigor,  and  the  land  is  then  as  dry 
as  at  any  other  season  of  the  year.  It  must  be  borne  in 
mind,  however,  that  these  observations  will  only  apply  t  o 
our  ordinary  seasons  ;  for  it  sometimes  happens  that  June 
is  a  very  wet  month,  as  in  1883,  when,  I  am  informed  that 
land  broken  in  August,  which  was  a  dry  month,  proved 
better  than  that  broken  in  June. 

COST  OF  A  PRAIRIE  FARM. 

The  first  cost  of  the  land  is  $1,25  an  acre.  The  first 
ploughing  we  generally  count  as  cost,  though  erroneously. 
This  is  worth  $1,50  an  acre  ;  or  to  be  better  understood, 
I  will  say  differently.  Prairie  land  is  abundant  at  gov- 
ernment price  ;  but  timber  is  mostly  in  second  hands  and 
is  held  higher. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  403 

A  quarter  section  of  prairie  land,  that  is,  one  hundred  and  sixty 
acres,  at  $1,25,  is $200 

Timber,  say  40  acres,  which  is  more  than  enough,  at  $3,       120 

Breaking  up  the  prairie,  at  1,50 240 

Fencing  into  four  lots,  eight  rails  high  and  stakes,  960 
rods,  or  three  miles,  15,366  rails  at  one  cent,  $153,53  ; 
3,840  stakes,  at  £  cent,  $19,20 173 

A  good  comfortable  double  log  cabin,  such  as  first  sttlers 
generally  occupy 

Other  small,  buildings  and  temporary  sheds 

Average  cost  of  a  well  with  pump,  $30,  with  buck- 
ets, $15 15 

I  will  add  to  cover  contingencies,  such  as  half  an  acre  of 
land  well  paled  in  for  a  garden,  a  cow-yard,  hog-pen, 
and  other  fixings.... 72 

This  makes  the  cost  of  the  farm,  independent  of  the  wood 

land,  just  $5  an  acre — the  total $920 


HYDROPHOBIA— OR,  MADNESS  AND  ITS  REMEDIES. 
JOHN  WESLEY'S  REMEDY    FOR  THE  BITE  OF  MAD  DOGS. 

First.  Plunge  into  cold  water  daily  for  twenty  days ; 
keep  under  as  long  as  possible.  This  has  cured,  even 
after  the  hydrophobia  had  begun. 

Second.  Or  mix  the  ashes  of  trefoil,  or  oak  ashes, 
with  hog's  lard,  and  annoint  the  part  bitten  as  soon  as 
possible  ;  repeat  twice  or  thrice,  at  six  hours'  intermission. 
This  has  cured  many  in  England,  and  in  one  instance 
particularly,  a  dog  bitten  on  the  nose  by  a  mad  dog. 

Third.  Or  mix  a  pound  of  salt  with  a  quart  of  water  ; 
squeeze,  bathe,  and  wash  the  wound  with  this  brine  for 
one  hour;  then  bind  some  fine  salt  on  the  wound  for 
twelve  hours.  The  author  of  this  recipe  was  bitten  six 
times  by  rabid  or  mad  dogs,  and  each  time  cured  himselt 
by  this  simple  remedy.  The  above  is  an  extract  from 
John  Wesley's  book  of  recipes  for  the  poor  of  England. 


404 

HYDROPHOBIA,    OR    CANINE     MADNESS,    CURED. 

The  following  remedy  (says  a  certain  author)  has  been 
successfully  used  by  the  sporting  gentry  in  Ireland, 
whose  hounds  sometimes  get  in  a  rabid  state.  The  ex- 
periment was  made  soon  after  a  dog  had  bitten  a  number 
of  his  comrades.  All  the  dogs  bitten  but  one  had  the 
remedy  administered,  and  showed  no  signs  of  madness. 
But  the  one  which  did  not  take  the  remedy,  died  in  a 
rabid  state.  This  was  a  fair  experiment. 

AN    INTERNAL    REMEDY    FOR    HYDROPHOBIA. 

T  ake  six  ounces  filings  of  pewter ;  six  ounces  rue, 
the  herb,  pulverized  ;  four  ounces  garlic  ;  four  ounces 
mithridate,  or  Venice  treakle  ;  cut  the  rue  and  garlic  fine 
or  small,  mix  the  whole  in  three  quarts  of  strong  beer, 
put  the  same  articles  in  a  vessel  that  can  be  stopped  tight ; 
put  it  into  a  pot  of  cold  water.  If  the  vessel  containing 
the  ingredients  be  of  glass,  wind  a  rope  of  hay  round  it 
to  prevent  its  breaking  when  boiling.  Let  it  simmer  for 
three  or  four  hours  over  a  slow  fire.  Then  take  the  in- 
side vessel  out  of  the  pot  of  water,  and  pour  out  the  con- 
tents, and  strain  and  press,  or  squeeze  the  strength  out  of 
the  herbs,  and  bottle  the  liquid  for  use — cork  it  well. 
Dose :  For  a  dog,  one  table-spoonful  the  first  day  ;  two 
the  second  day ;  three  the  third  day ;  four  the  fourth 
day  ;  and  five  the  fifth  day.  Then,  for  four  days  more, 
give  five  table-spoonsful  for  a  dose  each  day,  making  nine 
days  in  all.  The  same  remedy  to  be  taken,  and  in  the 
same  way,  by  man,  woman,  or  child.  Children  take  the 
remedy  in  proportion,  under  twelve  years  of  age.  To  be 
taken  in  the  morning.  The  sooner  the  remedy  is  applied 
after  the  bite  the  better.  Poultice  the  wound  with  the 
warm  ingredients,  squeezing  the  wound.  This  has  the 
appearance  of  a  valuable  remedy.  Try  it. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  405 

And  yet  another  valuable  remedy  for  hydrophobia,  the 
bite  of  'rattlesnakes,  chunk-head,  or  pilo  snake,  spider, 
etc.  Take  a  white  onion,  cut  ft  across  the  grain  into  four 
equal  parts ;  sprinkle  fine  salt  on  the  onion,  and  apply  it 
by  bandages  to  the  wound  as  soon  as  possible  after  being 
bitten  by  dog,  snake,  or  spider,  and  the  poison  will  run 
up  into  the  onion  ;  repeat  every  half  hour  with  a  new 
piece,  or  until  there  is  no  discoloring  of  poison  in  the 
onion,  and  the  poison  extracted.  Then  a  healing  plaster 
may  be  used,  and  the  wound  healed. 

TO  MEASURE  CATTLE. 

In  ascertaining  the  weight  by  admeasurement,  the  girth 
is  taken  by  passing  a  cord  just  behind  the  shoulder-blade 
and  under  the  fore-legs:  this  gives  the  circumference, 
and  the  length  is  taken  along  the  back  from  the  foremost 
corner  of  the  blade-bone  of  the  shoulder,  in  a  straight 
line  to  the  hindmost  point  of  the  rump.  (See  engraving 
below.) 


406  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

TABLE  FOR  ADMEASUREMENT  OF  CATTLE. 


Girth. 

Length. 

Weight. 

Girth. 

Length. 

Weight. 

ft.    in. 

ft.  in. 

St.        IbS. 

ft.  in. 

ft.  in. 

st.     Ibs 

4    3 

3     0 

12     12 

5    9 

3     9 

29       7 

3     3 

13     13 

4     0 

31       6 

3    6 

15      0 

4    3 

33       6 

3    9 

16       1 

4     6 

35      5 

4     0 

17      2 

4    9 

37       5 

4    6 

3     0 

14       6 

5    0 

39       5 

3    3 

15      9 

5    3 

41       4 

3     6 

16     12 

5     6 

43      4 

3    9 

18       1 

6    0 

4    3 

36       6 

4     0 

19      4 

4     6 

38      8 

4    3 

20       6 

4    9 

40    10 

4    9 

3    3 

17       6 

5    0 

42     12 

3    6 

18     11 

5    3 

45      0 

3    9 

20      2 

5     9 

47       2 

4    0 

21       6 

5     9 

49      4 

4     3 

22     11 

6     0 

51       8 

4     6 

24      2 

6    3 

4     6 

41     11 

4     9 

25       7 

4    9 

44      2 

5    0 

3    3 

19       5 

5     0 

46       7 

3    6 

20     12 

5     3 

48     11 

t 

3    9 

22       7 

5     6 

51       2 

4    0 

S3     12 

5     9 

53       6 

4    3 

25       5 

6    0 

55     11 

4     6 

26     13 

6     3 

58      2 

4    9 

28      6 

6     6 

4    6 

45       3 

5     0 

30       0 

4    9 

47     10 

5    3 

3    3 

21       4 

5     0 

50      4 

3     6 

22     J3 

5    3 

52     1  1 

3    9 

24      8 

5     6 

55      4 

4    0 

26      3 

5     9 

57     11 

4    3 

27     12 

6     0 

60      4 

4    6 

29       7 

6    3 

63       0 

4    9 

31       2 

6     9 

4    6 

48     11 

5    0 

32     11 

4    9 

51       7 

5    6 

3     6 

25      2 

5     0 

54       3 

3     9 

27       0 

5    3 

56     13 

4    0 

28     11 

5     6 

59       9 

4     3 

30      8 

5     9 

62       6 

4     6 

32       5 

6    0 

65       1 

4    9 

34      2 

6    3 

67     11 

5     0 

36       0 

7     0 

4    9 

55       6 

5     3 

37     11 

5     0 

58      4 

THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK. 
ABLE  FOR  ADMEASUREMENT  OF  CATTLE. 


407 


Girth. 

Length. 

Weight. 

Girth. 

Length. 

Weight. 

ft.    in. 

ft.  in. 

st.      Ibs. 

ft.     in. 

ft.  in. 

st.      Ibs. 

5    3 

61       3 

5     6 

78      9 

5     6 

64      2 

5    9 

82      3 

5     9 

67       1 

6    0 

85     11 

6     0 

69    "13 

6    3 

89       5 

6    3 

72     12 

6     6 

92     13 

6     6 

75     11 

6    9 

96      7 

7     3 

4    9 

59       6 

7     0 

100      0 

5    0 

62      8 

8     0 

5    3 

80       0 

5     3 

65      9 

5     6 

83     ]1 

5     6 

68     11 

5    9 

87      8 

5    9 

71     13 

6    0 

91       6 

6    0 

75      1 

6    3 

95      3 

6    3 

78      3 

6    6 

99       0 

6    6 

81      4 

6    9 

102     12 

7    6 

5    0 

66    13 

7    0 

106      9 

5    3 

70      4 

8    3 

5    6 

89       1 

5     6 

73       9 

5    9 

93      2 

5    9 

77       0 

6    0 

97      3 

6     0 

80      5 

6    3 

101      3 

6    3 

83      9 

6     6 

105      4 

6     6 

87       0 

6    9 

109       5 

6    9 

90      5 

7    0 

113      6  . 

7    9 

5     0 

71       7 

7    3 

117       6 

5    3 

75       1 

QUANTITY  OF  MEAL  OF  DIFFERENT  GRAINS. 

The  corn  of  the  different  species  of  grain  produces, 
when  ripe,  nearly  the  following  quantities  of  meal,  or 
household  flour  and  bread  per  bushel;  viz: 

Wheat  if  weighing  60  Ibs.,  of  flour  48  Ibs.,  of  bread  64  Ibs. 

Rye, 54 :  42  56 

Barley, 48 37* 50 

Oats, 40 22$ 30 

The  flour  of  wheat,  which  is  cut  before  it  is  quite  ripe, 
is  whiter  than  that  which  is  allowed  lo  come  to  maturity, 
and  bears  a  higher  price  in  the  markets.  The  grain 


408  THE 

which  is  intended  for  the  miller  should,  therefore,  be 
reaped  before  it  has  reached  its  utmost  growth  ;  but  that 
which  is  meant  for  seed  should  be  allowed  to  stand  until 
the  last  moment  at  which  it  can  be  cut  with  safety.  The 
corn  is  ground  into  meal  of  various  degrees  of  fineness, 
and  a  bushel  of  sixty  pounds  generally  yields,  when 
dressed,  about  the  following  quantities  :  viz. 

Fine  flour, 25$  Ibs. 

Household  flour, 22$ 

Pollards, 8 

Bran, 3 

TABLE 

SHOWING    THE    AVERAGE    QUANTITY    OF     NUTRITIVE     MATTER     IN    ONE 
THOUSAND  PARTS  OF  SEVERAL  VARIETIES  OF  ANIMAL  FOOD. 

Beans, 510  Veal, 250 

Mutton, 290  Pork,.' 240 

Beef, 260  Blood, 215 

Chicken, 270  Cod  and  sole, 210 

Brain, 200  White  of  an  egg, 140 

Haddock, 180  Milk, 72 

In  bread,  every  hundred  pounds'  weight  is  found  to 
contain  eighty  pounds  of  nutritious  matter.  Butchers' 
meat,  averaging  the  various  sorts,  contain  only  thirty-five 
pounds  in  a  hundred.  French  beans  (in  the  grain,) 
ninety  two  pounds  in  a  hundred  ;  broad  beans,  eighty- 
nine  ;  peas,  ninety-three  ;  lentilles,  ninety-four  in  a  hun- 
dred. Greens  and  turnips,  which  are  the  most  acqueous 
of  all  vegetables  used  for  domestic  purposes,  furnish  only 
eight  pounds  of  solid  nutritious  substance  in  a  hundred. 
Carrots  fourteen  pounds ;  and  what  is  very  remarkable, 
as  being  in  opposition  to  the  hitherto  acknowledged  theory, 
one  hundred  pounds  of  potatoes  only  yield  twenty-five 
pounds  of  substance  valuable  as  nutritious.  One 
pound  of  good  bread  is  equal  to  two  pounds  and  a  half 
or  three  pounds  of  the  host  potatoes  ;  and  seventy-five 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  409 

pounds  of  bread  and  thirty  pounds  of  meat  are  equal  to 
three  hundred  pounds  of  potatoes  ;  or,  to  go  more  into  de- 
tail, three-quarters  of  a  pound  of  bread  and  five  ounces  of 
meat  are  equal  to  three  pounds  of  potatoes.  One  pound 
of  potatoes  is  equal  to  four  pounds  of  cabbage,  and  three 
pounds  of  turnips ;  but  one  pound  of  rice,  broad  beans, 
or  French  beans  (in  grain,)  is  equal  to  three'  pounds  of 
potatoes. 

In  the  esculant  roots,  such  as  carrots,  etc.,  but  espe- 
cially turnips,  sugar  is  the  leading  nutritive  matter ;  and 
the  common  fruits  contain  sugar,  gum,  albuminous  mat- 
ter, and  acids,  together  with  a  highly  attenuated  form  of 
woody  fibre  or  lignin,  which  in  that  state  is  probably  di- 
gestible. The  comparative  nutritive  properties  of  the 
most  common  fruits  will  be  seen  by  a  reference  to  the 
annexed  table. 

TABLE 

SHOWING  THE  AVERAGE  QUANTITV  OF    NUTRITIVE   MATTER  IN  ONE  THOU- 
SAND  PARTS  OF  SEVERAL  VARIETIES  OF   VEGETABLE   FOOD. 

Morels, 896  Peaches, 200       ' 

Almonds, 650  Gooseberries, 190 

Tamarinds, 340  Apples,... 170 

Plums, 290  Pears, 160 

Grapes, 270  Strawberries, .  100 

Apricots, 260  Melon, 30 

Cherries, 250 

ON  FATTENING  ANIMALS. 

There  is  a  very  great  difference  in  the  quantity  of  food 
which  animals  require,  and  in  the  time  which  they  can 
pass  without  it.  In  general,  those  animals  which  are  the 
most  active  require  most,  and  those  which  are  most  indo- 
lent require  least  food.  The  cause  of  this  is  pretty  obvi- 
ous ;  the  bodies  of  animals  do  not  remain  stationary,  they 
are  constantly  wasting,  and  the  waste  is  proportioned  to 
18 


410  THE  FARMER'S  ATSTD 

the  activity  of  the  animal ;  hence  the  body  must  receive, 
from  time  to  time,  new  supplies  in  place  of  what  has 
been  carried  off.  The  use  of  food  answers  this  purpose. 
Almost  all  the  inferior  animals  have  particular  substances 
on  which  they  feed  exclusively.  Some  are  herbivorous, 
some  are  granivorous,  and  others,  again,  are  carnivo- 
rous. 

From  various  experiments,  we  have  the  following  re- 
sult: 

A  horse  will  consume  as  much  food,  besides  corn  as 8  sheep. 

A  cow, 12  " 

A  fattening  ox , 10  " 

A  three  year  old  heifer, 8  " 

A  two  year  old  heifer, 6  " 

A  one  year  old  heifer, 4  " 

A  calf, 2  " 

BREAD    MADE    FROM    THE    MIXTURES    OF    VARIOUS 
GRAINS. 

Cakes  may  be  made  of  potatoe  flour,  without  mixing  with 
any  other,  as  follows  :  Its  adhesive  quality  does  not  ad- 
mit of  baking  or  kneading  unmixed  with  meal  or  wheaten 
flour  ;  but  it  may  be  managed  in  this  manner.  A  small 
wooden  frame,  nearly  square,'  is  laid  on  a  flat  pan  like  a 
frying-pan ;  this  frame  is  grooved,  and  so  constructed 
that,  by  means  of  a  presser  or  lid  introduced  into  the 
groove,  the  cake  is  at  once  fashioned  according  to  the 
dimensions  of  the  mould.  The  frame  containing  the  fari- 
na may  be  almost  immediately  withdrawn  after  the  mould 
is  formed  upon  the  pan,  because,  from  the  consistency 
imparted  to  the  incipient  cake  by  the  heat,  it  will  speedily 
admit  of  being  safely  handled.  It  must  not,  however,  be 
fired  too  hastily,  otherwise  it  is  apt  to  become  unpleasant- 
ly hard,  and  unfit  for  mastication.  This  precautionary 
measure  being  observed,  it  will  be  found  that,  when  tho- 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  411 

roughly  ready,  the  bread  of  potatoe  flour,  even  unaided  by 
any  foreign  ingredient,  will  eat  very  palatably.  It  might 
then,  from  time  to  time,  be  soaked  for  puddings,  like  the 
tapioca ;  or  it  might  be  used  like  the  capada  cake,  which, 
in  appearance,  it  so  much  resembles ;  that  is,  when  well 
buttered  and  toasted,  it  will  make  an  excellent  breakfast 
appendage.  It  is  to  be  observed  here,  that  this  potatoe 
bread  is  not  fermented. 

Potatoes  may  be  prepared  to  serve  the  purpose  of  bread, 
by  simply  boiling  and  cutting  them  into  thin  slices,  which 
are  dried  thoroughly  by  a  gentle  and  equal  heat ;  for 
which  purpose  steam  heat  answers  best.  They  may  be 
close  packed,  and  carried  to  any  distance,  or  preserved 
for  any  length  of  time. 

M.  Parmentier  observes,  that  potatoes  contain  too  much 
mucilage  in  proportion  to  their  starch,  which  prevents 
them  from  being  converted  into  good  bread  ;  but  that  if 
starch  be  collected  from  ten  pounds  of  raw  potatoes,  by 
grating  then  in  cold  water,  and  agitating  them,  and  the 
starch  thus  produced  be  mixed  with  other  ten  pounds  of 
boiled  potatoes,  and  properly  subjected  to  fermentation, 
like  wheat  flour,  it  will  make  good  bread. 
Potatoe  Flour. — Sir  G.  Mackenzie,  in  the  "  Transactions 
of  the  Highland  Society,"  observes  t^at  potatoe  flour,  boil- 
ed  with  milk  and  a  little  sugar,  forms  one  of  the  most 
palatable,  wholesome,  and  cheap  dishes  of  which  a  labor- 
ing man  can  partake,  and  cannot  be  too  strongly  recom- 
mended to  cottagers,  who  ought  always  to  convert  a  portion 
of  their  potatoe  crop  into  flour,  to  be  used  when  fresh 
potatoes  cannot  be  got.  In  fact,  it  is  potatoe  starch  that 
very  nearly  resembles  arrow- root,  though  inferior,  and 
at  all  events  would  be  a  very  desirable  thing  to  have  in 
a  cottager's  family,  as  a  light  nourishing  food  in  case  of 
sickness. 


412  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

ON  FUEL. 

In  England,  coal,  from  its  abundance  and  cheapness, 
is  the  commonly  employed  fuel;  but  where  wood  is 
abundant,  or  where  its  value  is  little  more  than  that  of 
felling  it,  it  is  used  either  in  its  original  stale,  or  in  the 
form  of  charcoal.  It  is  essential  to  good  and  profitable 
fuel  that  it  should  be  free  from  moisture ;  for  unless  it  be 
dry,  much  of  the  heat  which  it  generates  is  consumed  in 
converting  its  moisture  into  vapor  ;  hence  the  superior 
value  of  old,  dense,  and  dry  wood,  to  that  which  is  porous 
and  damp.  A  pound  of  dry  wood  will,  for  instance,  heat 
thirty-five  pounds  of  water  from  32°  to  212°,  and  a  pound 
of  the  same  wood  in  a  moist  or  fresh  state,  will  not  heat 
more  than  twenty-five  pounds  from  the  same  to  the  same 
temperature ;  the  value,  therefore,  of  different  woods  for 
fuel  is  nearly  inversely  as  their  moisture,  and  this  may 
be  roughly  ascertained,  by  finding  how  much  a  given 
weight  of  their  shavings  loses  by  drying  them  at  212°. 

The  following  table  exhibits  at  one  view  the  power  of 
various  species  of  wood  in  producing  heat. 

The  number  indicates  the  quantity  of  timber  in  pounds 
required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  a  cubic  foot  of  water 
from  52°  to  212°. 

Pounds. 

Oak  chips , 4.20 

Elm 3.52 

Fir 3.52 

Ash 3.50 

Hornbeam 3.37 

Cherry-tree 3.20 

Beech 3.16 

Lime-tree : 3.10 

Poplar 3.10 

Maple 3.00 

Service-tree 3.00 

The  value  of  turf  and  peat,  as  fuel,  is  liable  to  much 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  413 

variation,  and  depends  partly  upon  their  density,  and  part- 
ly  upon  their  freedom  from  earthy  impurities.  A  pound 
of  turf  will  heat  about  twenty-six  pounds  of  water  from 
32°  to-.  212°,  and  a  pound  of  dense  peat  about  thirty 
pounds  ;  by  compressing  and  drying  peat,  its  value  as  a 
fuel  is  greatly  increased. 

TO  CURE  WESTPHALIA  HAMS. 

Hams  may  be  cured  in  order  to  resemble,  in  taste, 
those  of  Westphalia,  by  the  following  process:  Cover  a 
young  ham  of  pork  with  dry  salt ;  let  it  be  for  twenty- 
four  hours,  to  draw  off  the  blood  ;  then  wipe  it  perfectly 
dry,  and  take  one  pound  of  brown  sugar,  a  quarter  of  a 
pound  of  saltpetre,  half  a  pound  of  bay  salt,  and  three 
pints  of  salt ;  incorporate  these  ingredients  in  an  iron  pan 
over  the  fire,  and  stir  them  continuaHy  till  they  acquire 
a  moderate  degree  of  heat.  In  this  pickle  the  ham  must 
be  suffered  to  remain  for  three  weeks,  frequently  turning 
it,  when  it  should  be  suspended  in  a  chimney  for  drying 
by  means  of  smoke  from  no  other  but  a  wood  fire.  The 
smoke  from  oak  saw-dust,  or  shavings,  is  the  best  for  im- 
parting a  fine  flavor.  This  smoke  contains,  imperfectly 
formed,  pyroligneous  acid,  which  is  the  agent  that  com- 
municates the  flavor  to  the  Westphalia  hams.  In  Dum- 
freisshire,  the  pickle  for  hams  is  sometimes  made  with 
one-half  ale,  which  renders  the  hams  shorter,  and  adds 
greatly  to  the  richness  of  their  flavor. 

CUTTING  UP  MEAT. 

The  mode  of  cutting  up  meat,  differs  in  various  places. 
As  it  is  an  important  matter,  we  annex  an  article  from  an 
English  work,  which  cannot  fail  of  furnishing  important 
hints. 

The  mode  of  cutting  up  meat  is  more  diversified  even 
than  the  slaughtering,  almost  every  town  having  its  own. 


414 

But  as  London  is  the  emporium  of  the  export  meat  trade  <tf . 
Scotland,  the  method  of  cutting  up  meat  in  the  metropolis 
should  constitute  the  particular  study  of  the  shippers  of 
meat.  To  acquire  this  necessary  information,  the  snippers 
should  have  a  few  of  the  most  expert  butchers  in  London 
to  slaughter  and  cut  up  the  carcasses  of  the  various  sorts 
of  animals.  They  should  never  consider  themselves  above 
acquiring  such  information,  when  their  own  interest  will  be 
benefited  by  its  adoption.  Whether  the  London  method  of 
cutting  up  meat  is  really  the  best  of  any,  and  we  think  it 
is,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  London  butchers  must 
have  the  most  extensive  and  varied  experience  ;  and  any 
one  has  only  to  witness  the  operation  performed  by  ex- 
pert London  butchers,  to  be  satisfied  that  they  display 
great  skill  in  their  art,  and  execute  their  work  with  the 
utmost  precision.  Indeed,  the  precision  with  which  they 
divide  the  different  qualities  of  meat  from  the  same  car- 
cass, shows  their  thorough  knowledge  of  the  qualities  of 
meat  ;  and  the  variety  of  prices  which  different  parts  of 
the  same  carcass  fetch,  shows  with  what  accuracy  they 
can  gratify  the  tastes  of  the  various  grades  of  their  cus- 
tomers. 

In  practicing  this  precision,  they  not  only  make  the 
best  use  of  the  carcass,  but  realize  the  highest  value  for 
it,  and  at  the  same  time  gratify  the  taste  of  the  greatest 
number  of  customers.  In  the  carcass  of  any  animal,  an 
ox,  for  instance,  there  are  different  qualities  of  meat,  and 
these  qualities  are  situated  in  different  parts  of  the  car- 
cass. All  the  pest  parts  are  in  London  used  for  roasting 
and  steaks,  and  the  inferior  for  boiling,  either  in  pieces, 
or  making  stock  for  soups,  or  minced  meat,  in  the  various 
forms  of  pies,  sausages,  etc. 

The  carcass  of  an  ox  is  cut  up  into  the  following 
pieces,  as  may  be  seen  on  referring  to  the  numbers  on  the 
annexed  cut.  i. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK. 


415 


Fig.  1, 


Hind-Quarter, 

1.  Loin. 

2.  Rump. 

3.  Itch  or  adze-boae, 

4.  Butlock. 

5.  Hock. 

6.  Thick  flank. 

7.  Thin  flank. 

8.  Fqre-rib, 


Fore-Quarter 

9.  Middle-rib. 

10.  Chuck-rib. 

11.  Brisket. 

12.  Leg  of  mutton  piece. 

13.  Clod  and  sticking  and  neck. 

14.  Shin. 

15.  Leg. 


, 
uts  of  an  o: 


The  relative  value  of  these  different  cuts  of  an  ox  may 
be  stated  at  their  current  value,  viz  :  when  the  rumps, 
loins,  and  fore-ribs  of  a  fine  ox  fetch  8d.  a  pound,  the  thick 
flank,  buttock,  and  middle-rib  will  fetch  6d.;  the  itch  or 
adze-bone,  thin  flank,  chuck-rib,  brisket,  and  leg  of  mut- 
ton piece,  5d.;  the  clod  and  sticking,  and  neck,  3d.;  and 
the  legs  and  shins,  2d.  a  pound.  Such  is  the  difference 
in  value  of  the  different  cuts  of  an  ox,  in  the  meat  markets 
in  London.  As  an  object  of  comparison,  we  shall  also 
give  a  figure  of  an  ox  cut  in  the  Edinburgh  method,  as 
in  Jig .  2,  and  the  great  difference  between  Both  methods 
may  be  seen  at  a  glance.  See  cuts 


416 


THE  FARMER'S  AND 
Fig.  2. 


Hind. Quarter. 

1.  Sirloin,  or  back-sye. 

2.  Hock-bone. 

3.  Buttock. 

4. 'Large  round. 

5.  Small  round. 

6.  Hough. 

7.  Thick  flank. 

8.  Thin  flank. 

9.  Nine  holes. 


>Rump 


Fore-Quarter. 

10.  Large  runner. 

11.  Small  runner. 

12.  Spare-rib,  or  fore-sye. 

13.  Brisket. 

14.  Shoulder  Iyer. 

15.  Nap,  or  shin. 

16.  Neck. 

17.  Sticking  piece. 


It  is  therefore  obvious  that,  of  the  two  methods  of  cut- 
ting up  beef,  the  London  affords  much  more  of  roasting 
and  steak,  that  .is,  the  more  valuable  pieces,  out  of  the 
same  carcass  ;  and,  of  course,  more  money  would  thereby 
be  reallized  from  it. 

Much  of  what  we  have  said  on  the  management  requi- 
site in  sending  beef  to  the  London  market,  will  apply 
equally  to  sending  mutton,  veal,  or  lamb  to  the  same 
market.  The  best  pieces  only  should  be  sent  to  London, 
and  the  remainder  kept  for  the  home  market :  and  were 
this  recommendation  attended  to,  the  expense  of  exporta- 
tion would  be  diminished  on  what  was  sent ;  for  the  best 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK. 


417 


pieces  would  pack  well  together  in  a  comparatively  small 
space,  whereas,  whole  carcasses  of  mutton,  by  the  round- 
ness of  the  rib,  occupy  much  unnecessary  room,  for  which 
freight  must  be  paid. 

Mutton  is  aflso  cut  up  differently  in  London  and  Scot- 
land, as  may  be  seen  on  referring  to  the  figures  3  and  4, 
of  which  3  represents  the  London  method. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  4. 


In  the  fore-quarter,  No.  1,  is  the  shoulder,  2  and  2 
the  neck,  after  the  shoulder  has  been  taken  off,  and  3  the 
breast;  and  in  the  hind-quarter,  4  is  the  loin,  which, 
when  cut  double,  that  is,  partly  from  both  sides  of  the 
carcass,  is  called  a  chine  or  saddle,  and  5  is  the  leg.  A 
leg  of  mutton  in  London  is  cut  short ;  a  haunch  is  cut 
long,  taking  in  the  hook-bone,  similar  to  a  haunch  of 
venison.  The  flap  of  the  loin  is  left  attached  to  that  part 
of  the  fore-quarter  called  the  breast.  The  Scotch  mode 
of  cutting  up  mutton,  is  represented  by  figure  4,  in 
IS* 


418  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

which,  in  the  hind-quarter,  No.  3  is  the  gigot,  and  2  the 
loin  ;  and  in  the  fore,  3  the  back-ribs,  and  4  the  breast 
and  shoulders.  The  gigot  is  cut  about  half  way  between 
the  leg  and  haunch  of  the  London  method  ;  and  the  fore- 
quarter  is  cut  right  through  the  shoulders  in  two  places, 
called  back-ribs  and  breast. 

Shoulders  of  mutton  are  never  cut  off  in  Scotland  be- 
fore being  cooked,  except  by  keepers  of  eating-houses  :  but 
the  London  plan  of  cutting  mutton  is  decidedly  the  best, 
the  shoulder  forming  an  excellent  roast,  and  the  best  end 
of  the  neck-piece  being  admirably  suited  for  chops. 

The  different  joints  of  mutton  vary  almost  as  much  in 
price  in  London  as  pieces  of  beef.  The  leg  is  sometimes 
sold  as  high  as  lOd.  a  pound,  while  the  breast  of  the  same 
sheep  will  only  fetch  4d.  or  5d. ;  and  if,  in  the  wholesale 
market,  the  whole  carcass  is  sold  at  6d.  a  pound,  the  hind- 
quarter  will  be  worth  7d.  and  the  fore  only  5d.  From 
these  facts  it  is  obvious,  that  it  is  the  interest  of  the  ship- 
per only  to  send  hind-quarters  of  mutton  to  London,  for 
which  7d.  a  pound  may  be  easily  obtained,  and  a  ready 
market  for  them  in  the  west-end  butchers,  who  seldom 
deal  in  fore-quarters.  The  fore-quarter  should  be  sold  at 
home ;  hence  realizing  as  much  for  them  as  they  could 
fetch  in  London,  besides  saving  on  them  the  freight,  com- 
mission, and  wharfage.  They  form  excellent  joints  for 
tradesmen's  families,  and  are,  in  fact,  generally  preferred 
by  them  to  the  hind-quarters,  which  are  considered  dry 
eating,  and  certainly  do  not  make  as  good  broth  as  the 
fore-quarter.  Besides  the  saving  of  room  in  packing  the 
hind-quarters,  they  would  run  no  risk  of  being  stained 
when  sent  by  themselves,  as  the  staining  generally  arises 
from  blood  oozing  out  of  the  veins  in  the  fore-quarter. 

Lamb  is  cut  up  in  London  in  much  the  same  manner 
as  mutton,  excepting  that  the  neck  and  breast,  when  the 
shoulder  is  taken  off,  is  roasted  whole,  and  the  piece  is 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  419 

called  ribs  of  lamb.     In  Scotland,  lamb  is  cut  up  exactly 
as  mutton. 

Veal  is  cut  up  in  London  in  a  different  way  from  any 
other  meat.  The  knife  is  drawn  between  the  buttock  and 
itch-bone,  through  the  pope's  eye,  taking  a  sloping  di- 
rection through  the  coarse  end  of  the  buttock,  leaving  a 
flap.  The  piece  thus  cut  out  is  called  ajillet  of  veal.  It 
is  like  a  round  of  beef  with  a  part  of  the  thin  flank  left  to 
be  skewered  around  it.  The  round  bone  is  taken  out, 
and  stuffing  is  put  into  its  place.  When  the  itch-bone 
and  hook-bone  are  cut  from  the  loin,  the  piece  is  called  a 
chump  of  veal.  The  hind-quarter  of  veal  thus  consists  of 
fillet,  chump,  loin,  and  leg.  The  fore-quarter  is  cut  in 
the  same  manner  as  mutton,  having  shoulder,  breast, 
and  neck.  In  Scotland,  veal  is  cut  very  much  like 
mutton. 

The  London  mode  of  cutting  up  pork,  is  the  same  as 
the  Scotch  mode  of  cutting  up  mutton,  so  Jig.  2  will  illus- 
trate the  mode  ;  in  which,  in  the  hind -quarter,  No.  1  is 
the  leg,  and  2  is  the  loin  ;  in  the  fore,  3,  back-rib,  chine, 
or  hand  ;  and  4,  breast  and  shoulders,  spring  or  belly. 
The  spring  is  used  for  pickling,  and  the  hand  for  roasting, 
and  for  chops,  or  sausages.  In  Scotland,  the  hind-quar- 
ter consists  of  leg  and  loin,  and  the  fore  of  back-ribs  and 
breast.  For  pickling  or  roasting,  pork  is  cut  in  the  hind- 
quarter  like  that  of  English  mutton,  and  in  the  fore  like 
that  of  Scotch.  In  both  countries,  the  ham  is  cut  out 
alike. 

CEMENTS 

Of  various  kinds  should  be  kept  for  occasional  slight 
purposes,  or  for  mending  furniture.  Of  the  first,  flour  paste 
is  well  known  ;  if  required  to  be  stronger  than  usual,  a 
little  glue  may  be  boiled  in  it :  some  put  powdered  rosin 
in  it.  White  of  egg,  or  a  solution  of  glue  and  strong  gum- 


420  THE    FAEMIiK's    AND 

water,  are  good  cements.  A  paste  made  of  linseed  meal 
dries  very  hard,  and  adheres  firmly.  A  soft  cement  is 
made  of  yellow  wax  melted  with  its  weight  of  turpentine, 
and  a  little  Venetian  red  to  give  it  color.  This,  when 
cold,  is  as  hard  as  soap,  but  can  be  softened  by  th^  warmth 
of  the  hand,  and  is  very  useful  to  stop  up  crauksj  and  is 
better  to  cover  the  corks  of  bottles  sent  to  a  distance  than 
sealing-wax  or  hard  cement.  Plaster  of  Paris  may  serve 
as  an  occasional  cement. 

ROUGH  CASTING, 

This  is  a  cheap  and  durable  method  of  finishing  walls  in- 
stead of  stucco,  and  is  well  calculated  to  protect  them  from 
the  effects  of  the  weather,  but  is  chiefly  employed  in  small 
nouses  and  cottages  in  the  country,  built  of  rough  stone  or 
rubble.  There  are.  two  kinds  of  rough  cast.  In  the  first, 
the  wall  receives  a  coat  of  lime  and  hair  laid  on  smooth  ; 
and  as  fast  as  a  certain  portion  of  it  is  covered,  the  rough 
cast  is  thrown  or  splashed  against  the  wet  mortar  with  a 
large  trowel.  This  rough  cast  is  made  by  reducing  very 
fine  gravel,  or  coarse  sand,  to  a  uniform  size  by  sifting  or 
skreening,  and  washing  the  earth  away  from  it.  This  is 
mixed  with  newly  slacked  lime  and  water  to  the  consist- 
ence of  thick  cream.  When  the  plasterer  has  covered  a 
part  of  the  wall  in  the  manner  mentioned,  he  brushes  it 
over  with  a  whitewash  brush,  dipped  into  the  pail  with  the 
rough  cast,  so  as  to  lay  the  whole  smooth  and  even.  The 
intense  white  of  the  lime  is  unpleasant  to  a  person  of  taste, 
although  in  some  parts  of  the  country,  many  delight  in  it ; 
but  this  white  glare  may  be  easily  softened,  and  a  stone 
color  produced,  by  putting  into  the  mixture  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  yellow,  or  stone  ochre,  or  Spanish  brown,  or 
ochre  with  brown  or  black,  to  produce  the  desired  tint. 
It  will  be  necessary  to  try  the  color  on  a  board  or  a  part 
of  the  wall, .and  to  let  it  dry  to  determine  the  exact  tint, 


421 

and  to  put.  more  color  or  more  lime  and  sand  till  the  tint 
be  adjusted.  Either  a  sufficient  quantity  should  be  made 
for  the  whole  building,  or  very  great  care  must  be  taken 
to  get  the  same  tint  in  every  quantity  that  is  used,  or  the 
coloring  will  look  patchy  ;  and  it  is  to  be  observed,  that 
the  tint  given  must  be  very  light,  otherwise  it  may  be 
worse  than  pure  white. 

ANOTHER  METHOD  OF  ROUGH  CASTING. 

Upon  the  first  coat  of  lime  and  hair  there  is  thrown, 
while  it  is  yet  in  a  soft  state,  a  quantity  of  very  small  an- 
gular fragments  of  stone,  as  limestone,  granite,  etc.  These 
fragments  being  pressed  stick  in  the  mortar,  and  are  firmly 
fixed  there  when  the  latter  is  dry  and  hard.  This  mode 
is  much  practiced  in  Bristol,  where  broken  spar  from  the 
quarries  gives  a  rich  glittering  appearance  to  the  houses 
done  with  it. 

COLORING  FOR  WALLS. 

A  coloring  for  outside  walls  may  be  made  of  fresh- 
slaked  lime,  to  which  a  little  sulphate  of  iron  added  will 
give  a  warm  tint.  This  coloring  is  useful  for  a  brick 
house  that  has  become  black  and  dirty  :  it  should  be  done 
before  the  wall  is  fresh  pointed,  and  if  the  tint  be  well 
chosen,  the  house  will  look  nearly  as  if  just  built. 

Painting  stone  or  stuccoed  walls  with  oil  colors  has  been 
found  sometimes  a  good  practice,  and  preserves  them  very 
much. 

Lime-whiting  is  a  wash,  made  by  mixing  quick-lime 
with  water  alone,  and  laying  it  on  with  a  large  flat  brush  ; 
it  is  used  for  areas  and  similar  places.  If  required  not  to 
be  capable  of  being  rubbed  off,  some  coarse  size  may  be 
added. 

An  excellent  lime-wash  for  walls,  or  boarding  of  out- 
houses or  cottages,  may  be  made  as  follows  :  Half  fill 


422  .THE    FARMERS   AND 

with  water  a  tub  of  six  or  eight  gallons,  and  add  to  it  as 
much  of  clean,  sharp,  and  rather  coarse  sand,  and  of  lime 
fresh  burnt,  in  about  equal  "quantities,  as  much  as  will 
make,  when  it  is  well  stirred  up  and  mixed,  a  wash  of 
about  the  thickness  of  cream.  Lay  this  on  the  walls  with 
a  large  brush,  taking  care  to  stir  up  the  mixture  every 
time  the  brush  is  dipt  into  it,  so  as  to  take  up  as  much 
sand  as  possible.  The  more  fresh  the  lime  the  better, 
which,  if  good  and  proper  for  the  purpose,  will  make  the 
water  hot. 

PAINTING  IN  DISTEMPER, 

Is  mixing  the  colors  up  with  size  instead  of  oils,  as  a 
vehicle.  Some  balls  of  fine  whiting  are  laid  to  soak  in 
water  over  night ;  and  the  size,  rendered  liquid  by  warm- 
ing in  a  pipkin,  is  poured  in,  and  well  stirred  up  with  the 
whiting.  Some  colors,  finely  ground,  are  added,  accord- 
ing to  the  tints  required.  This  kind  of  painting  is  much 
cheaper  than  oil  color,  and  has  no  gloss  whatever  ;  but, 
though  it  looks  extremely  well  if  kept  clean,  it  has  the  in- 
convenience of  being  easily  stained  ;  and,  as  it  does  not 
bear  washing,  any  foul  marks  cannot  be  removed,  neither 
can  they  be  painted  over,  as  the  color  cannot  be  exactly 
matched  again,  and  any  attempt  to  touch  them  with  paint 
would  only  increase  the  evil.  It  must  be  done  upon  very 
smooth  and  dry  plastered  walls,  or  upon  papered  walls. 
Woodwork  is  never  painted  in  distemper,  as  it  would  not 
form  a  good  preservative ;  nor  can  it  be  employed  in  out- 
side work.  It  demands,  like  flatting,  to  be  laid  on  with 
dispatch  and  dexterity — not  to  be  streaky  and  uneven. 
If  possible,  the  whole  side  of  a  room  should  be  covered, 
before  any  one  part  has  quite  time  to  be  dry  ;  for  this, 
sufficient  color  should  be  mixed  up,  and  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  hands  employed. 
'  Various  tints  in  distemper  may  be  made  as  follows : 


423 

Straw  colors ;  with  whiting,  masticot,  and  Dutch  pink  ;  or 
with  whiting,  yellow  ocJhrc,  and  a  little  Venetian  red. 
Fawn  color ;  whiting,  Venetian  red,  and  a  little  black  or 
burnt  umber ;  or  white  and  burnt  sienna.  Grass  ;  white 
and  verditure,  with  Venetian  red  ;  or  with  white,  Venetian 
red,  and  Prussian  blue.  Pea  green  ;  with  white  and  Olym- 
pian green  ;  or  with  white,  yellow  ochre,  Prussian  blue, 
and  raw  umber.  Olive  green  ;  with  white,  Prussian  blue 
and  burnt  umber,  and  yellow  ochre. 

Those  who  wish  to  paint  in  distemper  must  practice 
mixing  up  the  colors,  which  is  more  difficult  than  in  oil, 
because  the  tints  dry  much  lighter  than  they  appear  when 
wet.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  in  order  to  ascertain  what 
color  a  certain  mixture  will  produce,  to  paint  a  slip  of 
paper  over  with  it,  and  dry  it  at  the  fire  to  see  the  tint ; 
if  this  be  neglected,  the  operator  will  be  entirely  deceived 
with  respect  to  the  color  of  his  painting.  Nevertheless, 
it  is  so  easily  done,  that  any  one  possessed  of  a  little  in- 
genuity may  paint  over  a  small  room  ;  a  circumstance 
worth  knowing,  where  cleanliness  with  economy  is  a  great 
object :  and  it  has  the  advantage  of  giving  little  or  no  of- 
fensive smell  during  the  operation,  and  for  some  time  af- 
terward, as  oil  paint  does,  but  may  be  begun  and  finished 
in  a  day  or  two.  Two  coats  are  generally  necessary  to 
cover  completely. 

When  old  plastering  has  become  discolored  by  stains, 
and  it  is  desired  to  have  it  painted  in  distemper  ;  it  is  ad- 
visable to  give  the  surface,  when  properly  cleansed  off 
and  prepared,  one  coat  at  least  of  white  lead  in  oil,  with 
some  spirits  of  turpentine,  which  will  generally  fix  all 
old  stains  that  would  otherwise  come  through  ;  and,  when 
quite  dry,  this  will  take  the  water-colors  very  kindly. 

When  we  reflect  upon  the  great  importance  of  cleanliness 
in  our  dwellings,  the  value  of  painting,  both  in  oil  and  in 
distemper,  should  appear  striking. 


424  THE 

SUBSTITUTE  FOR  SIZE. 

A  veiy  good  substitute  for  size  can  be  prepared  from 
potatoes.  Make  starch  from  the  potatoes  in  the  usual 
manner,  mix  the  whiting  and  water  to  the  proper  consist- 
ence, and  add  the  starch.  This 'has  the  advantage  of 
being  wholly  without  smell,  and  is  also  beautifully 
white.  It  forms  an  excellent  material  for  whitening  ceil- 
ings. It  may  be  observed  that,  as  whiting  is  only  washed 
chalk,  the  latter,  pounded  very  fine,  may  be  made  shift 
with,  when  whiting  cannot  be  procured. 

MILK  PAINT. 

A  paint  has  been  used  in  Europe  with  success,  made 
from  milk  and  lime,  that  dries  quicker  than  oil  paint,  and 
has  no  smell.  It  is  made  in  the  following  manner :  Take 
fresh  curds,  and  bruise  the  lumps  on  a  grinding-stone,  or 
in  an  earthen  pan,  or  mortar,  with  a  spatula  or  strong  spoon. 
Then  put  them  into  a  pot  with  an  equal  quantity  of  lime, 
well  slacked  with  water,  to  make  it  just  thick  enough  to 
be  kneaded.  Stir  this  mixture  without  adding  more  water, 
and  a  white-colored  fluid  will  soon  be  obtained,  which  will 
serve  as  a  paint.  It  may  be  laid  on  with  a  brush  with  as 
much  ease  as  varnish,  and  it  dries  very  speedily.  It  must 
however  be  used  the  same  day  it  is  made,  for  if  kept  till 
next  day  it  will  be  too  thick  :  consequently  no  more  must 
be  mixed  up  at  one  time  than  can  be  laid  on  in  a  day.  If 
any  color  be  required,  any  of  the  ochres,  as  yellow  ochre, 
or  red  ochre,  or  urnber,  may  be  mixed  with  it  in  any  pro- 
portion. Prussian  blue  would  be  changed  by  the  lime. 
Two  coats  of  this  paint  will  be  sufficient,  and  when  quite 
dry,  it  may  be  polished  with  a  piece  of  woollen  cloth,  or 
similar  substance,  and  it  will  become  as  bright  as  varnish. 
It  will  only  do  for  inside  work  ;  but  it  will  last  longer  if 
varnished  over  with  white  of  egg  after  it  has  been  polished, 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  425 

The  following  recipe  for  milk  paint  is  given  in  "  Smith's 
Art  of  House-painting."  Take  of  skim-milk,  nearly 
two  quarts  ;  of  fresh-slacked  lime,  about  six  ounces  and 
a  half;  of  linseed  oil  four  ounces,  and  of  whiting  three 
pounds  ;  put  the  lime  into  a  stone  vessel,  and  pour  upon 
it  a  sufficient  quantity  of  milk  to  form  a  mixture  resembling 
thin  cream ;  then  add  the  oil,  a  little  at  a  time,  stirring  it 
with  a  small  spatula  ;  the  remaining  milk  is  then  to  be 
added,  and  lastly  the  whiting.  The  milk  must  on  no  ac- 
count be  sour.  Slake  the  lime  by  dipping  the  pieces  in 
water,  out  of  which  it  is  to  be  immediately  taken,  and  left 
to  slack  in  the  air.  For  fine  white  paint,  the  oil  of  cara- 
away  is  the  best,  because  colorless  ;  but  with  ochres,  the 
commonest  oils  maybe  used.  The  oil,  when  mixed  with 
the  milk  and  lime,  entirely  disappears,  and  is  totally  dis- 
solved by  the  lime,  forming  a  calcareous  soap.  The 
whiting  or  ochre  is  to  be  gently  crumbled  on  the  surface 
of  the  fluid,  which  it  gradually  imbibes,  and  at  last  sinks : 
at  this  period  it  must  be  well  stirred  in.  This  paint  may 
be  colored  like  distemper,  or  size-color,  with  levigated 
charcoal,  yellow  ochre,  etc.,  and  used  in  the  same  manner. 
The  quantity  here  prescribed  is  sufficient  to  cover  twenty 
square  yards  with  the  first  coat,  and  will  cost  about  three, 
half- pence  a  yard.  The  same  paint  will  do  for  out-door 
work,  by  the  addition  of  two  ounces  of  slacked  lime,  two 
ounces  of  linseed  oil,  and  two  ounces  of  white  Burgundy 
pitch  :  the  pitch  to  be  melted  in  a  gentle  heat  with  the  oil, 
and  then  added  to  the  smooth  mixture  of  the  milk  and  lime. 
In  cold  weather  it  must  be  mixed  warm,  to  facilitate  its 
incorporation  with  the  milk. 

MENDING    CHINA. 

When  holes  are  required  to  be  drilled  in  china  or  earth- 
enware for  the  purpose  of  riveting  it  when  broken,  procure 
a  three-cornered  file,  and  harden  it  completely  by  making 


426 

the  end  red-hot,  and  plunging  it  into  cold  water ;  then 
grind  the  point  quite  sharp  on  a  grindstone,  and  afterward 
on  an  oil  stone.  Then,  with  the  point  of  this  tool,  pick 
repeatedly  on  the  spot  to  be  bored,  taking  care  not  to  use 
too  much  violence,  lest  the  object  should  break.  In  a 
short  time,  or  in  a  few  minutes,  by  a  continuance  of  the 
operation,  a  small  conical  piece  will  be  forced  out,  not 
bigger  than  a  pin's  head,  and  the  hole  may  afterward  be 
widened,  by  introducing  the  point,  and  working  the  file 
round. 

The  best  cement  for  broken  china  or  glass,  is  that  sold 
under  the  name  of  the  diamond  cement,  which  is  color- 
less, and  resists  moisture.  This  is  made  by  soaking 
isinglass  in  water  till  .it  is  soft,  and  then  dissolving  it  in 
proof  spirit.  Add  to  this  a  little  gum  ammoniac,  or  gal- 
banum  and  mastic,  both  dissolved  in  as  little  alcohol  as 
possible.  When  the  cement  is  to  be  used,  it  must  be 
gently  liquefied,  by  placing  the  phial  containing  it  in 
boiling  water.  The  phial  must  be  well  closed  by  a  good 
cork,  not  by  a  glass  stopper,  as  this  may  become  fixed. 
It  is  applied  to  the  broken  edges  with  a  camel's-hair  pencil. 

When  the  objects  are  not  to  be  exposed  to  moisture, 
white  of  egg  alone,  or  mixed  with  finely-sifted  quicklime 
will  answer  pretty  well.  Shell-lac,  dissolved  in  spirits  of 
wine,  is  better. 

A  very  strong  cement  for  earthenware  is  made  by  boil- 
ing slices  of  skim-milk  cheese  with  water,  into  a  paste, 
and  then  grinding  it  with  quicklime  in  a  marble  mortar, 
or  on  a  slab  with  a  mallet. 

CUTTING  GLASS. 

Panes,  or  flat  pieces  of  glass,  may  be  divided,  when  a 
glazier's  diamond  is  not  at  hand,  by  making  a  notch  with 
a  file,  and  carrying  a  piece  of  hot  charcoal  in  the  line  in 
which  it  is  wished  the  fracture  should  proceed.  The 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  427 

charcoal  must  be  kept  alive  with  the  breath.     A  red-hot 
iron  will  also  do. 

VARIETIES  OF  CHEESE.     . 

Cheshire  Cheese. — This  cheese  is  famous  for  its  rich 
quality  and  fine  piquant  flavor.  It  is  made  of  entire  new 
milk,  the  cream  not  being  taken  off.  The  cheeses  are 
generally  of  very  large  size,  usually  about  sixty  pounds 
weight,  and  some  have  been  made  of  one,  or  even  two, 
hundred  weight.  Each  cheese  is  usually  made  of  the 
produce  of  one  day's  milking,  from  herds  of  from  one  to 
two  hundred  cows,  who  feed  in  rich  pastures  on  some  of 
the  finest  land  in  England.  Their  excellence  must  be 
attributed  to  the  goodness  of  the  milk,  their  size  and  age, 
and  the  skill  employed  in  their  manufacture.  The  color 
is  not  entirely  natural ;  but  a  yellow  tint  is  given  by 
arnotto,  marigolds,  or  carrots.  It  is  said,  that  some  in- 
crease  the  richness  and  mellowness  of  the  cheese  by  add- 
ing beef-suet,  or  any  other  wholesome  and  sweet  fat  well 
clarified,  which  is  poured  into  and  mixed  with  the  curd. 

Gloucester  Cheese  is  much  milder  in  its  taste  than  the 
Cheshire.     There  are  two  kinds  of  Gloucester  cheese, 
single  and  double.     Single  Gloucester  is  made  of  skim- 
milk,  or  of  the  milk  deprived  of  half  the  cream  ;  of  course 
it  is  not  very  rich,  but  is  often  of  good  flavor.     Double 
Gloucester  is  a  cheese  that  pleases  almost  every  palate ; 
it  is  made  of  the  whole  milk  and  cream,  and  is  a  fat  cheese, 
usually  the  kind  employed  for  toasting,  though  the  single 
often  toasts  very  well.     These  cheeses  are  made  of  vari- 
ous sizes,  the  single  generally  eight  to  the  cwt.,  and  very 
thin,  and  the  double  four  to  the  cwt.,  and  at  least  twice  as 
thick.     As  the  two' kinds  sometimes  resemble  each  other 
considerably,  some  honest  farmers  stamp  the  figure  of  a 
heart  upon  the  single  Gloucester,  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
double.      The  true  characteristics  of  Gloucester  cheese 


428 

consist  in  its  great  richness,  together  with  the  mildness  of 
its  flavor,  and  that  smooth,  waxy  texture  which  makes  it 
cut,  even  in  thin  slices,  without  crumbing  as  Cheshire 
cheese  is  apt  to  do.  Its  oily  matter  is  retained  in  toasting, 
by  softening  without  being  burned. 

Stilton  Cheese. —  This,  from  its  peculiar  richness  and 
flavor,  has  been  called  the  Parmesan  of  England.  Its 
name  is  derived  from  having  been  the  first  made  at  Stilton 
in  Leicestershire,  though  it  is  now  manufactured  very 
generally  throughout  the  counties  of  Cambridge,  Hun- 
tingdon, Rutland,  and  Northampton.  It  is  made  by  adding 
the  cream  of  one  day  to  the  entire  milk  of  the  next.  The 
cheeses  are  all  of  a  size,  from  six  to  eight  pounds  weight, 
and  are  of  a  cylindrical  form,  made  in  a  deep  vat,  and  are 
not  considered  to  be  sufficiently  mellow  until  they  are  two 
years  old,  nor  ripe  until  they  exhibit  spots  of  blue  in  the 
interior,  marking  the  commencement  of  decay.  It  is  said 
that  some  keep  them  in  warm  damp  cellars  to  accelerate 
the  ripening.  The  blue  part  is  of  a  peculiar  nature,  dif- 
ferent, it  is  said,  from  the  common  blue  mould  of  cheese. 
The  decay  should  not  be  advanced  beyond  a  certain  point. 
A  variety  of  Stilton,  but  not  so  rich  or  of  so  fine  a  flavor 
as  the  last,  is  made  in  a  net,  and  of  the  form  of  a  pine 
cone,  the  net  impressing  lines  on  its  surface. 

Cottenham  Cheese,  made  near  a  town  of  that  name  in 
Cambridgeshire,  is  a  thicker  kind  of  cream  cheese  than 
Stilton.  Its  superior  delicacy  and  flavor  are  attributed  to 
the  fragant  herbage  on  the  commons  where  the  cows  are 
pastured.  • 

Sage  Cheese,  called  also  green  cheese,  is  made  chiefly 
in  the  vales  of  Gloucester  and  Wiltshire,  by  coloring 
some  curd  with  bruised  sage,  marigold  leaves  and  parsley, 
and  mixing  this  with  some  uncolored  curd ;  the  whole  is 
then  made  into  a  cheese,  which,  of  course,  exhibits  a  mot- 
tled appearance. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  429 

Among  the  Romans,  it  was  a  practice  to  flavor  cheese 
with  thyme  and  other  sweet  herbs ;  and  this  custom  was 
continued  during  the  middle  ages.  We  arextold}  that  the 
Emperor  Charlemange.  arriving  at  a  bishop's  palace  on  a 
fast  day,  could  get  nothing  but  bread  and  cheese.  The 
prelate,  observing  the  king  picking  out  with  his  knife  small 
specks,  which  he  mistook  for  impurities  in  the  cheese,  in- 
formed his  guest  that  they  were  parsley  seeds.  The  mon- 
arch tasted  them  and  liked  them  so  much,  that  he  requested 
the  prelate  to  send  him  an  annual  supply  of  cheese  pre- 
pared in  this  manner. 

Chedder  Cheese  is  not  exclusively  made  at  the  village 
of  Chedder,  in  the  Mendip  Hills,  Somersetshire.  A  great 
deal  of  the  same  kind  is  also  made  round  Bridgewater, 
and  in  the  marshes  round  Glastonbury.  The  cheese  is 
peculiar,  much  resembling  Parmesan  ;  it  has  a  very 
agreeable  taste  and  flavor,  and  has  a  spongy  appearance, 
the  eyes  being  filled  with  a  limpid  and  rich,  but  not  ran- 
cid, oil.  The  cheeses  are  generally  large.  But  little  of 
the  prime  Chedder  cheese  is  made,  that  generally  sold 
for  it  not  being  genuine,  and  is  inferior. 

Brickbat  Cheese, — There  is  nothing  remarkable  in  this 
except  its  form.  It  is  made  by  turning  with  rennet  a 
mixture  of  cream  and  new  milk.  The  curd  is  put  into  a 
wooden  vessel,  the  shape  of  a  brick,  and  is  then  pressed 
and  dried  the  usual  way.  It  is  best  made  in  September, 
and  is  ready  in  six  months. 

Dunlop  Cheese  is  famous  in  Scotland  :  it  is  so  called 
from  the  parish  of  Dunlop  in  Ayrshire,  where  it  was  first 
or  best  made,  and  where  the  pastures  are  very  rich  ;  but 
it  is  now  'manufactured  in  other  parts  of  Ayrshire.  The 
best  is  made  entirely  from  new  milk,  and  it  has  a  pecul- 
iarly mild  and  rich  taste  ;  but  there  is  nothing  remarkable 
in  the  manner  of  making  it. 

In  some  parts  of  England  they  never  churn  the  milk, 


430  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

but  only  the  cream  ;  consequently  they  make  little  but- 
ter-milk, because  the  servants  will  not  eat  this,  though 
they  have  no  objection  to  skim-milk.  In  Scotland  and 
Ireland,  on  the  contrary,  they  churn  all  the  milk,  and 
have  of  course  much  butter-milk,  which  is  much  relished 
there. 

In  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  they  make  a  cheese  for 
the  table  of  a  very  high  gout,  an  almost  Tartarian  pre- 
paration, by  allowing  the  milk  to  become  sour,  and  to 
coagulate  of  itself,  which  gives  a  flavor  even  more  pun- 
gent than  that  of  goat's-milk  cheese. 

What  is  called  in  London  new  cheese,  is  made  chiefly  in 
Lincolnshire,  and  is  either  made  all  of  cream,  or,  like  the 
Stilton,  by  adding  the  cream  of  one  day's  milking  to  the 
milk  that  comes  immediately  from  the  cow  :  they  are  ex- 
tremely thin,  and  are  compressed  gently  two  or  three 
times,  turned  for  a  few  days,  and  then  sent  to  be  disposed 
of  to  be  eaten  new  with  radishes,  salad,  etc.  It  may  be 
made  in  the  following  manner  :  Warm  same  cream,  add 
rennet  in  the  proportion  of  a  spoonful  to  a  pint,  or  more 
if  necessary.  Put  the  curd  into  a  sieve,  having  a  cloth 
at  the  bottom  ;  when  it  has  remained  twenty-four  hours, 
transfer  it  to  a  cheese  vat,  and  cover  it  with  a  wet  <;loth 
and  board  ;  in  about  two  hours  it  may  be  used. 

Skim-milk  Cheese. — Cheese  made  from  curd  of  skim- 
milk,  when  all  the  cream  has  been  separated,  has  in 
it  no  butyraceous  matter,  but  is  the  caseous  substance 
in  a  pure  state,  resembling  very  nearly  white  of  eggs,  or 
albumen,  or  perhaps  more  nearly  the  gluton  of  wheat. 
This  cheese  from  skim-milk  only,  is  made  in  those  dis- 
tricts  of  England  where  butter  is  the  chief  object  of  the 
dairy-man,  as  in  Essex  and  Suffolk.  What  is  made  in 
England  of  this  kind  has  scarcely  any  flavor,  and  dries 
almost  as  hard  as  a  horn,  but  it  is  as  digestible  as  the 
s-jfter  cheese,  though  not  very  palatable.  It  is,  however, 


431 

useful  as  part  of  ship  stores,  being  less  liable  to  spoil  on 
a  sea  voyage  than  richer  cheese,  particularly  in  a  warm 
climate  ;  on  the  subject  of  skim-milk  cheese  Dr.  Anderson, 
celebrated  for  his  writings  on  agriculture,  observes,  that  it 
is  an  erroneous  idea  to  suppose  that  the  agreeable  taste  of 
cheese  depends  solely  upon  the  quantity  of  oily  or  fat  mat- 
ter it  may  contain.  Parmesan  cheese  is  made  of  skim- 
milk  ;  so  are  the  Dutch  cheeses,  which  many  consider  as 
very  pleasant  tasted.  He  has  seen  cheese  made  of  skim- 
milk,  that  ate  exactly  like  the  finest  cream  cheese  ; 
and  he  considers  that  what  is  called  richness  in  cheese, 
depends  as  much  upon  the  particular  mode  in  which  they 
are  manufactured,  as  upon  the  materials  of  which  cheese 
consists.  In  confirmation  of  this  opinion  he  remarks,  that 
though  the  taste  of  Double  Gloucester  differs  so  much 
from  Cheshire  cheese,  yet  they  are  both  made  from  the 
same  kind  of  milk. 

Parmesan  Cheese. — This  most  celebrated  of  all  cheese 
is  made  in  the  duchy  of  Parma  and  Piacenza,  and  in  va- 
rious parts  of  Lombardy  :  at  present,  the  district  of  Lodi 
is  in  high  repute  for  it.  It  was  formerly  supposed  to  be 
made  from  goat's  milk,  and  the  high  flavor  which  it  has, 
is  supposed  by  some  to  be  owing  to  the  rich  herbage  of 
the  meadows  of  the  Po,  where  the  cows  are  pastured  ;  and 
by  others,  solely  to  the  process  by  which  it  is  manufac- 
tured, a  particular  account  of  which  may  be  seen  in 
Cadell's  "  Journey  in  Italy,  1818."  Half  the  milk  has 
stood  sixteen  or  seventeen  hours,  and  the  other  half  has 
stood  only  six.  The  milk  is  heated  and  coagulated  in  a 
cauldron;  and  without  being  taken  out  of  the  cauldron, 
the  curd  is  broken  very  small  by  an  implement  consisting 
of  a  stick  with  cross  wires  ;  it  is  again  heated,  or  rather 
scalded,  till  the  curd,  now  a  deposition  from  the  whey, 
has  attained  a  considerable  degree  of  firmness ;  it  is  then 
taken  out,  drained,  salted,  and  pressed  ;  and  in  forty  days 


432 

it  is  fit  to  put  into  the  cheese  loft.  The  Parmesan  is  kept 
for  three  or  four  years,  and  none  is  carried  to  market  till 
it  is  at  least  six  months  old.  Another  account  of  the 
manner  of  making  it  is  to  be  found  in  the  seventh  vol.  of 
the  Bath  Society's  papers,  and  in  the  second  vol.  of  Mr. 
Arthur  Young's  "  Travels  in  France." 

Dutch  Cheese. — In  Holland  th<?y  coagulate  their  milk 
with  muriatic  acid  instead  of  rennet,  which  occasions  that 
pungent  taste  peculiar  to  this  cheese,  and  preserves  it 
from  mites.  The  Gonda  is  most  celebrated,  which  is 
made  with  extraordinary  care.  A  detailed  description  of 
the  mode  of  making  it  is  in  the  Jour.  "Agri.  des  Pays 
Bas  ;  and  is  quoted  in  the  excellent  work  by  Margaret 
Dodds.  The  best  Dutch  cheese  is  made  in  the  environs 
of  Leyden,  at  Eidam  and  Friezland,  where  also  a  very 
lage  quantity  is  manufactured  for  England,  of  skim- 
milk,  chiefly  for  sea  stores.  In  the  Texel,  they  make 
cheese  from  ewes1  milk  ;  a  good  deal  of  Dutch  cheese, 
of  a  round  form,  comes  now  to  London  ;  it  is  of  a  low 
price,  and  frequently  of  very  good  quality. 

Swiss  Cheese. — Switzerland  has  been  long  celebrated 
for  its  cheese  :  several  varieties  of  cheese  are  produced 
there,  and  although  made  of  skim  milk,  or  partially 
skim-milk,  yet  are  they  remarkable  for  their  fine  flavor, 
which  is  partly  owing  to  the  herbage  of  the  mountain 
pastures.  That  denominated  from  Gruyere,  a  bailiwick 
in  the  canton  of  Fribourg,  is  best  known  in  England. 
This  is  flavored  by  the  dried  herb  of  melilotos  officinahs, 
in  powder.  The  cheeses  weigh  from  forty  to  sixty 
pounds  each,  and  require  to  be  kept  in  a  damp  place,  and 
washed  frequently  with  white  wine  to  preserve  it  from 
the  depredations  of  insects.  Until  of  late,  the  manufac- 
ture qf  this  cheese  was  limited  to  a  few  wealthy  persons  : 
as  it  is  necessary  for  its  quality  that  the  cheese  should  be 
very  large,  and  that  the  milk  should  be  coagulated  on  the 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  433 

day  that  it  was  taken  from  the  cow,  it  was  only  by  keep- 
ing a  large  number  of  cows  that  the  manufacture  could 
be  carried  on  ;  and  the  owner  of  a  few  cows  only  was  una- 
ble to  succeed.  At  present,  however,  it  appears  that  cheese 
dairies  have  been  established  by  the  poor  peasantry  join- 
ing together,  and  thus  competing  with  the  more  wealthy. 
Another  excellent  cheese  is  made  at  Neufchatel.  The 
Schabziegar  cheese  is  made  by  the  mountaineers  of  the 
canton  of  Glarus.  It  has  a  marbled  appearance  and  aro- 
matic flavor,  from  the  bruised  leaves  of  the  melilot.  The 
milk  is  exposed  to  the  temperature  of  46°  for  five  or  six 
days,  when  the  cream  is  completely  formed,  and  is  taken 
off.  The  skim-milk  is  coagulated  by  sour  milk,  and 
not  by  rennet,  and  the  curd  thus  obtained  is  pressed 
strongly  in  bags,  and  when  sufficiently  pressed  and  dried, 
it  is  ground  to  powder,  salted  and  mixed  with  the  bruised 
flowers  or  seeds  of  the  melilotos  officinalis,  and  afterward 
again  pressed  into  cheese.  The  entire  separation  of  the 
cream,  or  unctuous  part  of  the  milk,  is  essential.  Some 
Swiss  is  also  manufactured  from  a  mixture  of  ewe-milk 
with  that  of  the  cow. 

Westphalia  Cheese  is  a  skim-milk  cheese,  and  is  a^ re- 
markable instance  of  how  much  the  quality  of  the  cheese 
depends  upon  the  manufacture.  It  is  described  by  some 
as  being  preferable  to  the  Dutch,  Swiss,  and  even  Par- 
mesan, cheese.  The  cream  is  allowed  to  remain  till  the 
milk  beneath  is  sub-acid  ;  it  is  then  removed,  and  the 
milk  placed  near  a  fire  to  coagulate.  The  whey  is  next 
expressed  from  the  curd,  which  is  dried  and  crumbled  be- 
tween the  hands.  It  remains  for  several  days,  until  the 
putrid  fermentation  commences  ;  but  this  is  stopped  by 
kneading  it  into  balls  with  caraways,  salt,  butter,  pound- 
ed pepper,  and  cloves.  Sometimes  these  balls,  or  little 
cheeses,  are  hung  up  in  the  smoke  of  a  wood  fire. 

Cheese  from  milk  and  potatoes,  is  manufactured  in 
19 


434 

Thuiingia'  and  Saxony.  The  best  potatoes  are  half 
dressed  in  steam,  peeled,  and  reduced  to  a  pulp.  Five 
pounds  of  this  are  mixed  with  from  one  to  ten  pounds  of 
sweet  curd,  and  kneaded  together,  some  salt  being  added  : 
after  lying  for  a  few  days,  this  is  again  kneaded,  and 
then  pressed  into  little  baskets,  where  the  superfluous 
moisture  drains  off;  the  cheese  is  then  formed  into  balls, 
and  then  dried  in  the  shade.  These  cheeses  keep  well 
in  the  dry,  and  their  quality  improves  with  age,  with  the 
advantage  that  they  generate  no  vermin  ;  their  taste  is 
said  to  exceed  the  best  cheese  made  in  Holland. 

Cream  cheese,  although  so  called  is  not  properly  cheese, 
but  is  nothing  more  than  cream  dried  sufficiently  to  be 
cut  with  a  knife.  To  make  it,  a  quantity  of  good  sweet 
cream  is  put  into  a  cheese  vat,  with  green  rushes  sewed 
together  on  purpose,  at  the  bottom  of  the  vat,  which  must 
have  a  sufficient  number  of  holes  to  let  the  whey  which 
drains  off,  pass  freely  away.  On  the  top  of  this  cheese 
are  likewise  laid  rushes,  or  long  grass  of  the  Indian  corn, 
in  the  same  manner  as  at  the  bottom,  in  order  to  allow  it 
to  be  turned  without  being  handled.  It  is  usual  to  make 
these  cheeses  from  one  inch,  to  one  inch  and  a  half  in 
thickness.  The  thinner  they  are  made,  the  sooner  they 
are  ready.  It  is  kept  in  a  warm  place  to  sweat  and  ri- 
pen ;  but  extremes  of  heat  or  cold  are  injurious,  and  some 
judgment  must  be  used  in  managing  it. 

SAGE. 

There  are  several  sorts,  as  the  red,  the  green,  the  small 
leaved,  and  the  broad-leaved  balsamic.  Its  chief  use  in 
cookery  is  in  stuffings  and  sauces,  to  correct  the  too  great 
lusciousness  of  strong  meats,  as  goose,  duck,  or  pork  :  its 
tasle  is  warm,  bitterish  and  aromatic,  qualities  which  de- 
pend upon  an  essential  oil.  The  red  has  the  most  agreeable 
and  fullest  flavor  for  this  purpose  ;  the  green  is  the  next ; 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  435 

the  two  last  are  used  in  medicine.  Sage  has  had  great 
reputation  formerly,  on  account  of  its  medicinal  qualities ; 
but  at  present,  these  do  not  appear  to  be  much  regarded. 
It  possesses,  however,  some  aromatic  and  astringent  pow- 
ers ;  and  a  decoction,  or  sage  tea,  is  found  serviceable  in 
debility  of  the  stomach,  and  in  nervous  cases.  The  Chinese 
sometih.es  prefer  it,  it  is  said,  to  their  own  tea.  It  is  useful 
as  a  gargle  in  sore  throat,  and  it  is  grateful  and  cooling. 
The  broad-leaved  balsamic  species  is  the  most  effiacious 
for  its  medical  qualities,  and  as  a  tea  herb.  It  is  also  in- 
troduced into  cheese. 

MINT, 

There  are  several  species  of  mint  that  grow  wild,  found 
chiefly  in  low  moist  situations,  and  they  are  likewise  cul- 
tivated. They  are  all  distinguished  by  a  well  known  and 
peculiar  aromatic  flavor,  and  some  are  employed  in  culi- 
nary preparations,  others  yield  a  highly  odoriferous  and 
pungent  essential  oil  by  distillation.  None  of  them  are 
in  the  least  poisonous  ;  but  they  are  very  different  both  in 
appearance  and  their  uses. 

Spearmint. — This  is  the  common  mint  cultivated  in  our 
gardens,  and  employed  in  different  processes  of  cookery, 
as  having  the  most  agreeable  flavor  ;  the  leaves  are 
sometimes  boiled  in  certain  dishes,  and  afterward  with- 
drawn. They  likewise  form  an  ingredient  in  soups,  and 
are  sometimes  used  in  spring  salads.  They  are  also 
dried  for  the  winter,  and  in  this  manner  lose  none  of  their 
flavor.  Mint  is  stomachic  and  antispasmodic,  and  is  use- 
ful in  flatulencies  ;  these  qualities  probably  led,  independ- 
ently of  its  agreeable  flavor,  to  its  universal  use  in  pea 
soup,  in  which  it  is  a  valuable  ingredient. 

Peppermint. — This  is  cultivated  entirely  for  the  essen- 
tial oil  distilled  from  it.  Its  taste  is  stronger,  warmer, 
and  more  pungent  than  spearmint,  and  leaves  a  sort  of 


436  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

coolness  on  the  tongue  after  tasting  it.  It  yields  a  little 
camphor,  to  which  its  taste  is  partly  owing,  and  its  medi- 
cinal uses  are  well  known. 

Pennyroyal  mint,  has  a  warm*  pungent  flavor,  but  less 
agreeable  than  common  mint.  It  is  employed  in  some 
particular  dishes  in  cookery,  and  formerly  chiefly  for 
medical  purposes,  but  is  now  little  used. 

MARJORAM. 

There  are  several  species  of  marjoram,  but  that  which 
is  preferred  for  cookery,  and  which  is  cultivated  in  our 
gardens  for  this  purpose,  is  the  sweet  marjoram,  also  call- 
ed knotted  marjoram.  The  leaves  are  dried  as  a  season- 
ing herb,  having  an  agreeable  flavor.  There  is  also  a 
winter  sweet  marjoram,  used  for  the  same  purposes.  Pot 
marjoram,  common  or  wild  marjoram,  is  found  growing  in 
our  fields.  This  has  nearly  the  same  flavor,  but  is  in- 
ferior, and  is  only  used  when  the  others  are  not  at  hand. 
All  these  are  favorite  ingredients  in  soups,  stuffings,  etc. 

TANSY. 

Tansy  grows  wild,  and  is  cultivated  in  gardens.  Its 
leaves,  having  a  powerful  aromatic  bitter,  are  sometimes 
chopped  or  bruised,  to  put  into  certain  puddings,  or  the 
juice  alone  is  so  employed  :  its  use  is  very  ancient.  There 
are  three  varieties ;  the  plain  and  curled  leaved,  and  the 
variegated 

SAFFRON. 

It  is  now  chiefly  employed  as  a  coloring  matter  for 
cheese  and  butter.  When  good  saffron  has  a  beautiful 
yellow  color,  and  an  agreeable  odor,  it  yields  its  active 
principle,  an  essential  oil,  to  water  and  spirit.  Dr.  A.  T." 
Thomson,  in  his  Materia  Medica  states,  that  it  excites  the 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  437 

the  nerves  of  the  stomach,  and  it  is  in  some  degree  nar- 
cotic ;  its  incautious  use  has  sometimes  been  attended 
with  dangerous  consequences.  It  is  sometimes  adultera- 
ted with  safflower  and  marigolds  ;  but  the  adulteration  is 
easily  detected,  for  the  petals  of  these  flowers  will  appear 
distinct  from  the  stigmata  of  the  crocus. 

RHUBARB. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  useful  and  best  of  all  the  pro- 
ductions of  the  garden  that  are  put  into  pies  and  puddings. 
It  was  comparatively  little  known,  till  within  the  last 
twenty  or  thirty  years,  but  it  is  now  cultivated  in  almost 
every  British  garden.  The  part  used  is  the  foot-stalks  of 
the  leaves,  which,  peeled  and  cut  into  small  pieces,  are 
put  into  tarts,  either  mixed  with  apples  or  alone.  When 
quite  young,  they  are  much  better  not  peeled. 

CORIANDER. 

This  plant,  of  eastern  origin,  has  been  long  cultivated 
for  its  seeds,  which  are  highly  aromatic,  and  form  one  of  the 
less  agreeable  spices :  they  are  employed  by  the  distiller 
in  flavoring  spirits,  by  the  confectioner  for  incrusting  with 
sugar,  and  by  the  druggist  in  medicine.  Its  tender  leaves 
are  also  sometimes  used  in  soups  and  salads,  and  in  Peru 
the  seeds  are  employed  in  great  excess  to  season  their 
food. 

CARAWAY. 

The  caraway  is  found  growing  in  meadows.  It  is 
likewise  cultivated  for  its  seeds.  The  seeds  have  a  plea- 
sant aromaiic  odor,  and  a  sweetish,  warm,  pungent  taste, 
depending  upon  an  essential  oil,  which  is  easily  extract- 
ed by  rectified  spirit,  and  partly  so  by  water.  They  are 
employed  in  confectionary  in  cakes,  biscuits',  etc.;  in 
medicine,  as  a  carminative,  and  for  flavoring  spirituous 


438 

liquors  ;  and  the  young  leaves  aro  sometimes  used  ih 
soups :  formerly  the  roots  were  eaten  as  parsnips,  and  by 
some  are  thought  to  be  not  inferior. 

CAMOMILE. 

This  very  useful,  and  generally  used,  aromatic  bit- 
ter, is  cultivated  on  account  of  its  flowers,  an  infusion  of 
which  forms  an  excellent  stomachic,  known  by  the  name 
of  camomile  tea.  Though  the  double  sort  is  more  raised 
by  gardeners,  the  single  is  the  best  and  strongest  as  a 
medicine.  The  flowers  are  kept  dried  in  bags.  The 
active  principle  of  camomile  is  a  resinous  substance  call- 
ed piperina,  discovered  by  Dr.  A.  T.  Thomson. 

WORMWOOD. 

The  intense  bitter  of  this  plant  is  so  great  as  to  render  it 
proverbial.  Its  odor  is  strong,  and  though  fragrant,  yet 
to  many  persons  it  is  disagreeable  and  nauseous.  It  grows 
wild  but  is  likewise  cultivated  for  several  purposes,  though 
less  used  than  formely.  It  has  tonic  properties,  and  is 
sometimes  employed  as  a  stomachic*  The  French  beve- 
rage or  liquor,  called  eau  d'absmthe,  thought  to  create  an 
appetite,  is  prepared  from  wormwood,  by  the  addition  of 
alcohol  and  subsequent  distillation.  The  active  part  seems 
to  be  the  extractive,  for  the  essential  oil  which  it  con- 
tains is  not  in  the  least  bitter.  Before  the  use  of  hops 
was  known,  wormwood  was  much  employed  in  the  com- 
position of  beer  or  ale :  for  this  purpose  it  was  gathered 
when  in  seed,  and  dried  :  some  prefer  its  flavor  to  that  of 
the  hop. 

BALM. 

Balm,  formerly  much  employed  in  medicine,  is  still  found 
to  make  a  very  grateful  and  useful  drink  in  fevers.  The 
herb,  in  its  natural  state,  has  a  weak  aromatic  taste,  and 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  439 

,a  pleasant  smell  somewhat  of  the  lemon  kind.  The  leaves 
may  be  kept  dried  in  the  sun  or  oven,  and  preserved  for 
use. 

PURIFYING  WATER. 

As  it  is  sometimes  impossible  to  procure  water  pure  and 
fit  for  domestic  purposes,  it  is  important  to  know  by  what 
method  it  may  be  purified,  as  it  is  called,  that  is,  deprived 
of  those  substances  which  contaminate  it ;  for  it  is  to  be 
remembered  that  water,  in  itself,  is  necessarily  pure  and 
incapable  of  change,  and  that  when  it  is  unfit  for  use  the 
cause  must  be  attributed  to  the  presence  of  foreign  mat- 
ters ;  in  other  words,  substances  which  do  not  belong  to 
it. 

Sponge  may  be  employed  for  filtering,  by  compressing  it 
into  the  neck  of  some  vessel  made  to  hold  the  water  ;  this 
substance  is  very  convenient,  as  it  may  be  easily  taken 
out,  cleaned,  a-nd  replaced.  . 

But  the  lest  material  for  filtering  water  is  charcoal. 
This  substance  not  only  acts  mechanically  by  its  porosity 
as  a  strainer,  but  it  has  the  valuable  and  peculiar  quality 
of  preventing  putrefaction,  by  absorbing  at  once  the  gas- 
eous matter  that  is  generated,  and  thus  impeding  decom- 
position. Sailors  have  long  been  acquainted  with  this 
property  of  charcoal,  and  they  have  found  it  to  be  an  ex- 
cellent practice  to  char  the  inside  of  the  casks  in  which 
they  take  water  to  sea  in  long  voyages.  It  was  once 
supposed  that  the  chief  use  of  this  was  to  prevent  the  wa- 
ter from  contracting  a  disagreeable  taste  from  the  wood  , 
but  it  is  now  known  that  it  not  only  effects  this,  but  that  it 
acts  much  more  powerfully,  by  absorbing  all  putrid  mat- 
ter and  offensive  odor,  and  thus  rendering,  in  a  considera- 
ble degree,  even  foul  and  unwholesome  water  salubrious 
and  transparent. 

The  best  charcoal  for  this  purpose  is  that  produced  by 


440 


THE  FARMER'S  AND 


burning  "animal  substances,  called  animal  charcoal,  which 
is  more  effective  than  vegetable  charcoal.  Charcoal  has 
likewise  the  property  of  absorbing  coloring  matter  ;  bran- 
dy  may  be  rendered  white  by  being  passed  through  it, 
and  port  wine  has  been  rendered  pale  :  it  is  also  used  for 
whitening  the  syrup  of  sugar. 

Nature  effects  filtration  ~by  means  of  "beds  of  sand. — 
Water  that  has  percolated  through  these  issues  is  perfectly 
transparent  and  clear,  and  freed  from  everything  except 
what  it  holds  from  solution.  Art,  imitating  nature,  em- 
ploys sand  for  the  same  purpose,  and  filtering  beds  upon 
a  great  scale  have  been  formed  for  purifying  water,  the 
supply  of  towns,  and  for  domestic  purposes.  Little  more, 
indeed,  seems  necessary  for  rendering  water  perfectly 
pure,  where  the  impurities  are  merely  of  a  mechanical 
nature. 

To  filter  water  ly  means  of  sand,  it  is  the  practice  in  many 
places,  particularly  in  France,  to 
construct  cisterns  in  the  cellars, 
and  to  divide  them  into  two  une- 
qual parts  by  a  partition,  a,  that 
does  not  reach  quite  to  the  bot- 
tom. The  largest  of  these  divisions, 
,  is  half  filledwith  layers  of  sand 


of  different  degrees  of  coarseness,  and  into  this  the  water 
to  be  filtered  is  put ;  in  passing  down  through  the  sand, 
all  the  mechanical  impurities  are  detained,  and  it  rises 
into  the  other  division,  c,  perfectly  clear.  This  method 
is  so  simple,  that  it  may  be  practiced  anywhere  without 
difficulty.  The  shape  and  size  of  the  cistern  are  quite 
immaterial.  If  a  cock  is  placed  in  the  smaller  division 
-to  draw  off  the  water,  it  should  be  fixed  a  little  way  above 
the  bottom,  lest  there  might  be'  some  slight  sediment 
which  would  be  disturbed.  It  is  obvious  that  the  sand 


441 

can  only  answer  the  purpose  for  a  certain  time  ;  for  it 
must  become  clogged  with  the  impurities  and  sedi-ment 
from  the  foul  water,  and  will  require  renewal  more  or 
less  often,  in  proportion  to  the  foulness  of  the  water.  The 
sand  should  be  well  washed  before  it  is  used,  and  it  should 
contain  no  earthy  matter,  as  this  would  defeat  the  object 
of  filtration.  Clean  sharp  sand  is  best,  and  it  should  be 
separated  by  sieves  into  various  degrees  of  coarseness, 
to  place  in  different  layers,  the  finest  being  put  at  the 
bottom. 

It  may  be  remarked,  that  when  water  is  filer  ed,  by  nature 
through  beds  of  sand,  it  ascends  to  the  surface,  by  which 
the  purification  is  more  completely  effected  than  by  de- 
scent. In  the  latter  case,  some  impurities  might  be  forced 
through  by  the  weight  of  the  water,  or  by  their  own  gra- 
vity ;  but,  in  the  former  case,  gravity  must  oppose  the 
ascent  of  the  impurities,  which  are  therefore  more  likely 
to  remain  behind.  Filters  have  been  executed  on  this 
principle,  by  making  the  water  pass  upward  through  the 
sand  and  charcoal,  or  other  filtering  materials. 

A  very  simple  apparatus  of  this  kind  was  made  long  ago 
by  M.  Parrot,  of  Paris,  which 
has  been  the  origin  of  much 
of  the  recent  apparatus  for 
tliis  purpose.  As  it  may  be 
very  easily  executed,  it 
might  be  sometimes  useful 

to  trave^ers'  wno  may  fin^ 

it  difficult,  in  some  situa- 
tions, to  procure  pure  water,  a  b  c.  represents  a 
curved  tube,  either  round  or  square,  into  which  sand,  or 
sand  and  charcoal,  are  put,  up  to  the  level  of  the  dotted 
line  at  c.  A  little  flannel  bag  is  put  into  the  end  a.  and 
water  poured  into  this  has  its  coarsest  impurities  retained 
by  the  flannel ;  and  in  passing  through  the  sand,  in  the 
19* 


442 


THE  FARMER'S  AND 


lower  part  of  the  tube,  and  rising  upward  to  J,  is  complete- 
ly  purified,  and  drops  into  a  vessel  placed  below.  If 
found  necessary,  a  piece  of  linen  or  muslin  may  be  tied 
over  the  mouth,  b,  to  prevent  any  particle  of  sand  coming 
over.  A  tube  of  this  kind,  about  three  inches  in  diameter, 
will  filter  about  three  quarts  of  water  in  an  hour.  The 
longer  the  leg  a,  the  more  rapidly  it  will  filter,  from  the 
pressure  of  the  water/.  The  sand  should  be  made  pretty 
compact,  for  the  slower  the  passage  of  the  water,  the 
more  it  will  be  purified. 

Upon  this  principle,  an  improved  mode  of  filtering  has 
been  effected  in  cisterns,  namely, 
by  forcing  the  water  to  ascend 
through  the  filter,  instead  of  de- 
scending.    Here  the  cistern  has 
5=,  two  partitions,  a  and   b.      That 
IP**  at  a  does  not  reach  quite  to  the 


bottom,  and  the  other  has  an  apparatus  at  b.  In  the 
middle  division,  a  piece  of  perforated  metal,  wood,  or 
stone,  or  a  cloth,  is  fixed  a  little  above  the  bottom  ;  on 
this  is  placed  a  layer  of  small  pebbles,  then  coarse  sand 
and  layers  of  charcoal,  then  finer  sand  and  charcoal,  the 
whole  being  covered  by  another  cloth,  also  fixed  just  be- 
low the  aperture  b.  The  water  to  be  filtered  is  put  into 
the  division  a  ;  it  then  passes  below  the  first  partition,  and 
by  its  pressure  rises  through  the  perforated  plate  c,  and 
likewise  through  the  pebbles,  sand,  and  charcoal,  and 
passing  through  the  cloth  above  it,  runs  through  an  aper- 
ture in  the  partition  b  into  the  last  division,  from  which  it 
is  drawn  by  a  cock  as  it  is  wanted. 

An  easy  method  of  cleaning  the  filtering  materials  is  by 
making  the  water  pass  through  them  in  a  contrary  direc- 
tion to  what  it  does  when  filtering.  For  example,  suppo- 
sing, as  we  have  just  stated,  the  division  a  is  that  which 
receives  the  foul  water,  and  b  that  which  receives  the 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  443 

purified  water.  Then,  to  clean  the*  filtering  apparatus, 
reverse  the  process,  and  fill  the  division  b  with  unpurified 
water ;  it  will  pass  through  the  aperture  in  the  partition 
b,  and  descend  through  the  cloth,  the  sand,  and  perforated 
plate  c,  rising  in  the  division  #,  and  carrying  with  it  all 
the  impurities,  which  may  be  drawn  off  by  a  pipe  fixed  in 
the  bottom. 

CHEMICAL  TESTS  FOR  EXAMINING  WATER. 

When  good  water  is  first  taken  up,  it  is  perfectly  clear 
and  colorless  ;  but  the  examiner  should  not  be  satisfied 
with  holding  up  a  glassful,  bet  ween  his  eye  and  the  light; 
he  should  also  pour  some  into  a  deep  ale  glass,  into  which 
he  should  look  downward,  when  the  slightest  tinge  from 
extraneous  substances  will  appear. 

If  the  water  be  discolored  in  any  manner,  it  is  usually 
owing  to  some  impurity  mechanically  suspended  in  it, 
and  which  may  be  removed  by  rest  and  filtration,  in  the 
manner  already  described  :  but  the  impurities  may  like- 
wise be  dissolved  in  the  water,  in  which  case  they  will 
pass  through  the  filter,  which  has  no  power  of  separating 
them. 

To  determine  whether  the  water  contains  lime  in  any 
form,  the  oxalic  acid  should  be  employed,  as  the  best  test 
for  this  earth.  All  waters  containing  lime  are  more  or 
less  injurious  to  health,  affecting  the  kidneys  if  they  are 
drank  for  any  continuance.  Some  of  the  springs  about 
London  contain  a  great  deal  of  sulphate  of  lime,  and  are 
unfit  for  washing,  and  would  be  unhealthy  to  drink.  To 
explain  the  principle  upon  which  oxalic  acid  proves  the 
presence  of  lime,  it  must  be  observed,  that  lime  has  a 
stronger  attraction  for  the  oxalic  than  it  has  for  any  other 
acid  ;  therefore  it  will  quit  whatever  acid  it  may  be  com- 
bined with  in  a  dissolved  state,  and  unite  to  the  oxalic, 
forming  an  oxalate  of  lime,  which,  being  insoluble  in 


444 

water,  will  fall  down  as  a  white  precipitate.  But  instead 
of  using  pure  oxalic  acid,  it  is  better  to  employ  it  as  joined 
to  ammonia,  or  the  oxalatp  of  ammonia. 

To  detect  the  presence  of  iron  in  water,  add  to  it  tinc- 
ture of  galls  ;  if  there  be  iron,  a  black  precipitate  like  ink 
will  be  perceived :  but  for  this  purpose  the  water  must 
not  be  boiled,  for  in  that  case  the  carbonic  acid  would  be 
driven  off,  and  the  iron  would  fall  down,  and  would  not 
be  affected  by  the  test.  Prussiate  of  potash  in  the  same 
case,  will  give  a  blue  precipitate  like  Prussian  blue.  If 
this  test  give  the  same  colored  precipitates  after  the  water 
has  been  boiled,  then  the  iron  is  not  in  the  state  of  a  car- 
bonate, but  is,  most  probably,  a  sulphate  of  iron.  If  it  be 
required  to  determine  whether  the  salt  be  a  sulphate,  add 
muriate  or  nitrate  of  barytes  to  some  of  the  water,  and  if 
it  be  a  sulphate,  but  not  otherwise,  a  precipitate  will 
appear. 

Vegetable  or  animal  matter  may  be  detected,  by  adding 
sulphuric  acid  and  evaporating  the  Water  :  if  such  matter 
be  present,  the  water  will  become  blackened. 

BREAD  FROM  THE  BARK  OF  THE  PINE. 

From  the  civilized  state  in  which  we  now  live,  we  can 
form  but  faint  ideas  of  the  necessitous  situation  under  which 
many  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  globe  exist,  and  in  corn- 
parison  of  whom  our  poorest  cottagers  may  be  considered 
in  a  state  of  ease.  Von  Bush  informs  us  that,  in  the  rigo. 
rous  and  unfertile  climates  of  Norway  and  Lapland,  ne- 
cessity obliges  the  inhabitants  to  make  use  of  the  inner 
bark  of  the  common  Scotch  fir  (Pinus  sylveslris}  for  food. 
In  the  spring  season  they  cut  down  the  older  trees,  and 
stripping  off  the  bark,  collect  the  soft  white  succulent  in. 
terior  part,  which  in  the  early  time  of  the  year  has  a  sweet 
milky  juice  in  it,  and  is  the  new  layer  of  wood  in  an  in- 
cipent  state ;  when  they  have  occasion  to  use  it,  they  dry 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  445 

this  at  the  fire,  or  bake  it  in  an  oven,  till  it  becomes  brittle, 
then  beat  it  and  grind  it  into  meal,  and  after  steeping  the 
farinaceous  part  or  flour  in  warm  water,  to  take  off*  the 
resinous  taste,  they  mix  it  with  a  small  portion  of  oats,  or 
moss,  and  make  it  into  thin  cakes,  about  an  inch  thick, 
which  are  baked  for  use.  The  poor  inhabitants  are  some- 
times constrained  to  live  upon  this  disagreeable  food  for  a 
great  part  of  the  year.  We  learn  from  the  same  authority, 
that  "in  summer  the  Laplanders  scarcely  eat  anything 
but  fish  from  the  fresh-water  lakes,  and  drink  with  great 
eagerness  the  water  in  which  the  fish  has  been  boiled.  In 
winter  they  must  put  up  with  dried  fish,  and  the  innermost 
bark  of  the  fir,  which  they  strip  off  in  the  summer,  divide 
it  in  long  strips,  and  hang  them  in  their  dwellings  to  dry 
for  winter  stores.  When  used,  these  strips  of  bark  are 
minced  into  small  pieces  along  with  the  rein-deer  tallow, 
and  boiled  together  for  several  hours  with  water,  till  they 
form  a  thick  broth."  Dr.  Prout  suggests,  with  respect  to 
this  process,  that  during  the  long  boiling,  the  Ugnin,  or 
woody  fibre  may  perhaps  combine  with  the  water,  so  as  to 
form  a  kind  of  starch,  which  is  soluble  in  the  stomach  ; 
but  the  precise  nature  of  the  change  is  not  yet  understood. 
The  young  shoots  of  the  fir,  stripped  of  their  leaves,  just 
as  they  begin  to  appear  in  the  spring,  are  sought  for  with 
avidity  by  the  children,  and  are  very  wholesome,  form- 
ing an  agreeable  salad ;  these  are  also  stored  in  winter  for 
the  rein-deer.  In  the  same  countries,  also,  they  dry  the 
root  of  the  water  dragon,  (Culla  palustris)  grind  it  to  flour, 
and  mix  it  with  the  above.  The  inner  bark  of  the  elm 
and  of  other  trees,  has  been  employed  in  the  same  man- 
ner. 

TO  PRESERVE  FISH. 

To  preserve  fish  quite  fresh,  for  a  short  time,  requires 
even  more  care  than  meat.     They  should  be  kept  in  a 


446  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

very  cool  place,  an  ice-house  if  possible  ;  but  if  that  can- 
not  be  had,  they  should  be  laid  upon  a  stone  floor  or  shelf, 
and  dipped  in  cold  salt  and  water  every  night  and  morn- 
ing. If  it  is  necessary  to  keep  them  a  few  days  longer, 
this  may  be  done  by  immersing  them  in  a  pickle  composed 
of  equal  quantities  of  vinegar,  small-beer,  and  water.  . 

TO  PRESERVE    MEAT. 

The  Moors  of  Africa  preserve  meat  in  the  following 
manner  :  They  cut  into  thin  slices,  beef,  mutton,  or 
camel's  flesh,  and  after  salting  them  well,  suffer  them  to 
lie  in  the  pickle  twenty-four  hours.  The  meat  is  then 
removed  from  the  tubs  or  jars,  and  then  put  into  others 
filled  with  fresh  water ;  and  when  it  has  remained  there 
a  night,  it  is  taken  out,  and  hung  upon  ropes  to  dry  in 
the  sun  and  air.  When  thoroughly  dried  and  hard,  it  is 
cut  into  pieces  two  or  three  inches  long,  and  thrown  into 
a  pan,  or  cauldron,  which  is  kept  ready,  with  boiled  oil 
and  suet  sufficient  to  cover  it ;  thus  it  is  boiled,  till  it  be 
very  clear  and  red  on  cutting  it,  when  it  is  again  taken 
out  and  set  to  drain.  After  having  undergone  this  pro- 
cess, it  stands  to  cool,  while  the  jars  are  getting  ready  for 
storing  it ;  at  the  same  time,  the  liquor  in  which  it  was 
fried  is  poured  upon  it,  and  as  soon  as  it  is  thoroughly 
cold,  the  vessels  are  closely  stopped.  Preserved  in  this 
manner,  it  will  remain  hard,  and  keep  two  years  ;  indeed, 
the  hardest  is  considered  the  best  and  most  palatable.  It 
is  brought  to  table,  sometimes  fried  with  eggs  and  garlic, 
or  stewed  with  a  little  lemon-juice  poured  on  it. 

When  meat  is  to  be  preserved  a  long  time,  the  brine 
should  consist  of  a  saturated  solution  of  salt.  A  common 
direction  in  books  is,  that  the  brine  should  be  so  strong 
that  an  egg  will  float  in  it ;  but  this  is  a  very  imperfect 
test  of  its  strength,  for  an  egg  will  not  only  float  in  a  sat 
urated  solution,  but  in  one  that  has  double  its  measure  ol 


447 

common  water  added  to  it ;  and  from  observing  this  im- 
perfect direction,  and  making  their  brine  too  weak,  some 
persons  have  failed  in  preserving  their  meat.  Indeed,  it 
would  be  advisable  that  the  brine  should  not  only  be  as 
strong  as  it  can  be  made,  but  that  a  little  more  salt  should 
be  added  that  can  be  dissolved  ;  because,  as  the  meat  is 
constantly  giving  out  its  juices  up  to  a  certain  period,  these 
juices  will  lower  the  strength  of  the  brine  below  the  pre- 
serving point ;  but  if  there  is  an  excess  of  salt  present,  it 
will  dissolve  in  the  juices  given  out,  and  thus  the  strength 
of  the  brine  will  be  kept  up.  A  saturated  solution  of  salt 
is-  made  by  dissolving  seven  ounces  and  a  half  of  salt,  in 
an  imperial  pint  of  water  at  60°.  When  the  meat  has 
lain  sufficiently  in  the  brine,  it  is  to  be  taken  out,  and 
packed  in  casks  with  dry  salt  between  each  layer  of  meat. 
A  strong  brine  or  pickle  for  preserving  meat  a  long  time, 
or  for  sea  voyages,  is  made  by  boiling  down  the  solution ; 
and  the  rule  is,  that  the  water  should  be  evaporated  till 
the  salt  begins  to  crystallize,  which  is  known  by  a  thin 
film  of  salt  beginning  to  form  on  the  surface  when  the 
liquid  is  on  the  fire  ;  the  water  is  then  completely  satu- 
rated. 

The  same  pickle  may  be  used  repeatedly,  provided  it 
be  boiled  up  occasionally,  with  additional  salt  to  preserve 
its  strength,  as  this  is  diminished  by  the  combination  of 
part  of  the  salt  with  the  meat,  and  by  the  dilution  of  the 
pickle  by  the  juices  extracted.  In  consequence  of  boil- 
ing, the  albumen,  which  would  cause  the  pickle  to  spoil 
by  changing  very  soon,  is  coagulated,  and  rises  to  the 
surface  in  the  form  of  scum,  which  must  be  carefully  re- 
moved 

PORTABLE  SOUP. 

Portable  soup  comes  into  this  class  of  substances  pre 
served  as  food  by  drying.     The  principles  upon  which  it 


448  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

is  made  are  the  same  with  that  of  manufacturing  glue. 
The  gelantine  of  meat  is  dissolved  by  boiling  water  ;  and 
the  water  being  afterward  evaporated,  the  gelantine  is 
Jeft  in  a  solid  state.  Any  fresh  lean  meat  will  answer  for 
this  purpose,  but  the  fat  should  be  cut  away.  Portable 
soup,  made  in  large  quantities,  forms  a  valuable  acquisi- 
tion to  the  traveller,  and  to  those  engaged  in  naval  and 
military  duties. 

Dr.  Kitchner  endeavoured  to  ascertain,  by  careful  in- 
vestigation,  the  best  and  cheapest  mode  of  making  this  soup. 
The  legs  and  shins  of  beef  he  found  to  answer  better  than 
other  meat,  both  in  regard  to  quantity  and  flavor.  If  ex- 
pense is  not  a  principal  object,  the  addition  of  other  meat, 
and  the  trimmings  of  poultry  and  game,  together  with  lean 
ham,  in  the  proportion  of  one  pound  to  ejght  of  beef,  will 
greatly  improve  the  flavor.  Made  without  ham,  the  price 
of  this  essence  in  the  shops  is  from  10s.  to  12s.  the  pound  ; 
made  in  a  private  kitchen,  Dr.  K.  estimates  the  expense 
to  be  scarcely  more  than  3s.  6d.  per  pound.  One  ounce 
of  this  (2d.)  will  make  a  pint  of  broth  ;  double  that  quan- 
tity, with  the  addition  of  either  thickening  or  flavoring 
ingredients,  the  same  quantity  of  soup. 

To  make  Portable  Soup. — Take  a  leg  or  shin  of  beef, 
weighing  about  ten  pounds* ;  have  it  from  a  bullock  re- 
cently killed  ;  break  the  bones,  and  put  it  into  your  soup- 
pot  ;  just  cover  it  with  water,  and  set  it  on  the  fire  to 
heat  gradually,  till  it  nearly  boils.  It  should  boil  for 
nearly  an  hour.  When  scum  rises,  it  should  be  carefully 
skimmed  off,  and  a  little  cold  water  be  poured  in  once  or 
twice,  which  will  cause  more  scum  to  rise  on  the  sur- 
face, which  must  be  again  removed.  When  the  scum 
has  ceased  rising,  let  it  boil  for  eight  or  nine  hours,  and 
then  strain  it  through  a  hair-sieve  into  a  stone  jar,  and 
place  it  where  it  will  quickly  cool.  The  next  day,  after 
removing  every  particle  of  fat,  pour  it  quite  through  a 


449 

very  fine  sieve,  or  tamis,  into  a  stew-pan,  taking  care 
that  none  of  the  settlings  at  the  bottom  go  into  the  stew- 
pan.  After  adding  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  black  pep- 
percorns, let  it  boil  briskly,  the  pan  uncovered,  until  it 
begins  to  thicken,  and  is  reduced  to  about  a  quart.  All 
scum  that  rises  must  be  removed  as  in  the  preceding  pro- 
cess, but  without  adding  water  to  it.  When  it  begins 
to  thicken,  withdraw  it  from  the  brisk  fire,  and  place  it 
where  it  can  continue  to  boil  gently,  until  it  becomes  a 
a  very  thick  syrup.  Great  care  must  be  taken  to  pre- 
vent it  burning,  which  would  in  one  instant  destroy  the 
whole.  Pour  out  a  little  in  a  spoon,  to  ascertain  if  it  will 
jelly.  If  it  does  not,  then  boil  it  longer,  and  at.  length  pour 
it  into  a  little  potting  jar,  about  an  inch  and  a  half  in 
depth  and  perfectly  dry.  These  pots  Dr.  Kitchner  re- 
commends, if  the  soup  is  intended  for  home  consumption, 
and  is  sufficiently  concentrated  to  keep  for  six  months. 
If  to  be  longer  preserved,  it  may  be  put  into  bladders  such 
as  are  used  for  the  german  sausages  :  or  it  may  be  dried 
in  the  form  of  cakes,  by  pouring  it  at  first  into  a  dish 
until  cooled.  When  cold  enough  to  turn  out,  weigh  the 
cake,  and  divide  it  into  pieces  of  an  ounce,  or  half  an 
ounce  each  ;  place  them  in  a  warm  room,  and  turn  them 
twice  a  day  for  a  week  or  ten  days,  by  which  time  they 
will  be  thoroughly  dried.  If  kept  in  a  dry  place,  they 
may  be  preserved  for  years. 

Portable  soup,  besides  being  very  serviceable  to  travel- 
lers, is  also  very  convenient  in  country  places,  where  it 
is  difficult  to  have  a  supply  of  fresh  meat,  for  making  ex- 
tempore broths,  sauces  and  gravies  for  hashed  or  stewed 
meat,  etc.  When  they  are  to  be  used,  half  an  ounce  is 
put  into  a  vessel  with  half  a  pint  of  boiling  water,  which 
is  to  be  covered  and  set  upon  hot  ashes,  or  put  into  a  water- 
bath,  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  until  the  whole  is  disolved- 
If  seasoning  of  roots  or  herbs  is  required,  they  may  be 


450 

added.  Boil  an  onion,  with  or  without  a  bit  of  parsley 
and  sweet  herbs,  and  a  few  corns  of  allspice,  or  other  spice, 
in  the  water  you  melt  the  soup  in,  and  which  may  be  fla- 
vored with  mushroom  catsup,  essence  of  sweet  herbs,  or 
of  celery,  or  anything  else  that  is  customary. 

As  this  portable  soup  is  easily  made,  and  is  not  only 
convenient  in  a  family,  but  economical,  since  no  more  need 
be  dissolved  than  is  wanted,  it  is  recommended  that  it  be 
made  at  home,  as  affording  the  only  certainty  of  the  good- 
ness of  the  materials  ;  it  may  thus  be  made  for  less  than 
half  the  price  of  that  at  which  it  is  sold. 


A  preparation  is  made  in  France,  called  "  Gelatine 
brut  Jin,'7  from  bones ;  the  ends  being  cut  off,  and  the 
bones  cut  down  the  middle  to  remove  the  fat,  they  are 
steeped  in  diluted  muriatic  acid  for  about  ten  days,  which 
dissolves  the  solid  part  and  leaves  the  gelatine.  The  acid 
being  poured  off,  they  are  soaked  afresh  in  weak  acid  for 
a  day  and  a  night,  and  then  steeped  in  water  some  hours, 
renewing  it  five  or  six  times  until  all  the  acid  is  washed 
out ;  and  finally,  they  are  steeped  in  a  very  weak  solution 
of  sub-carbonate  of  soda,  to  neutralize  what  acid  may  yet 
remain.  100  Ibs.  of  bones  yield  about  25  Ibs.  of  gelatine. 
The  gelatine  is  then  dried  and  cut  in  the  form  of  dice, 
and  is  used  for  making  soup,  for  which  it  keeps  better 
than  the  cakes  of  portable  soup.  This  kind  of  prepared 
gelatine  is  made  in  England,  and  may  be  had  in  the  Lon- 
don shops  ;  but  we  wish  our  readers  to  observe,  that  we 
merely  mention  the  fact,  without  recommending  the  sub- 
stance. 

TO  PICKLE  SALMON. 

Salmon  is  pickled  with  vinegar  in   the  following  man- 
ner :     The  fish  ought  to  be  perfectly  fresh  and  in  good 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.   .  451 

condition,  ft  must  be  cut  into  pieces  of  convenient  size, 
but  the  scales  are  not  to  be  taken  off.  Make  a  strong 
brine,  and  boil  the  fish  in  just  so  much  as  will  cover  it, 
with  some  whole  pepper  and  allspice,  but  take  care  not  to 
over- boil.  When  sufficiently  done,  lay  the  fish  on  a  slope 
to  drain  off  the  superfluous  liquor.  When  quite  cold, 
pack  it  up  close  in  kitts,  a  kind  of  small  shallow  casks, 
and  pour  over  them  some  of  the  brine,  together  with  some 
good  vinegar  ;  let  this  stand  for  a  day  ;  and  then,  to  make 
them  lie  close,  strike  the  kitt  with  a  mallet,  and  pack  them 
down  as  close  as  possible  ;  then  head  the  kitts.  Some 
boil  in  the  liquor  bay-leaves,  fennel,,  and  tarragon.  The 
kitts  should  not  be  opened  till  wanted  for  use ;  the  fish 
will  keep  after  that  a  fortnight.  The  goodness  of  pickled 
salmon  is  known  by  the  brightness  of  the  scales,  and  their 
adhering  fast  to  the  skin,  the  firmness  of  the  flesh,  and  its 
fine  rose  color.  If  stale,  or  beginning  to  spoil,  it  is  ex- 
tremely  unwholesome  and  altogether  unfit  for  food. 

TO  PICKLE  OYSTERS. 

Put  the  oysters  into  a  stew-pan  with  their  liquor,  over 
the  fire  ;  do  not  let  them  boil,  but  take  them  off  when  they 
are  white  and  firm  ;  remove  the  beards  ;  strain  the  liquor, 
and  put  it  with  twice  its  quantity  of  good  vinegar  into  a 
stone  jar  ;  to  this  may  be  added  some  mushroom  catsup, 
some  bay-leave*,  tarragon,  and  shallots.  Stew  the  whole 
in  an  oven  for  three  hours  ;  when  cold,  put  them  into  a 
jar,  stewing  in  with  them  a  little  pounded  sugar,  some 
pepper-corns,  allspice,  and  bay-leaves.  Fill  up  the  jar 
with  vinegar,  and  cork  and  secure  it  with  bladder. 

POTTED  BEEF. 

Beef  potted  to  taste  like  venison,  is  made  of  the  flank  of 
beef,  the  inside  skin  of  which  must  be  pulled  off,  and  the 
meat  slashed  across,  especially  in  the  thickest  parts.  I* 


452  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

must  lie  for  six  hours  in  pump  water.  It  must  then  be 
salted  with  saltpetre,  of  the  bulk  of  an  egg,  mixed  with 
two  pounds  of  common  salt.  White  wine  vinegar  is  to 
be  sprinkled  upon  it,  and  it  must  lie  for  three  days,  turn- 
ing it  once  a  day.  The  brine  is  then  washed  away  with 
claret.  The  seasoning  must  consist  of  cloves,  mace,  nut- 
meg, white  and  red  pepper ;  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of 
each,  beaten  together  with  savory,  thyme,  sage,  and  the 
rind  of  lemon,  shredded  together,  and  then  well-rubbed  into 
the  cuts,  slashes,  and  insides.  It  must  be  afterward  bound 
with  tape,  the  claret  poured  over  it,  the  skins  laid  upon  it, 
and  baked  in  a  lon^  pot. 

TO  PRESERVE   BUTTER. 

Butter  may  be  preserved  without  salt,  by  incorporating 
it  with  honey,  in  the  proportion  of  an  ounce  to  a  pound  of 
butter.  This  has  an  agreeable  taste,  will  keep  for  years, 
and  might  be  useful  on  long  voyages  ;  but  as  the  propor- 
tion of  honey  is  considerable,  it  may  not  agree  with  some 
constitutions. 

TO  PRESERVE  EGGS 

However  compact  and  close  the  shell  of  an  egg  may 
appear,  it  is  nevertheless  perforated  with  a  multitude  of 
small  pores,  too  minute  to  be  seen  by  the  unassisted  eye. 
The  effect  of  these,  however,  is  evident,  by  the  daily  de- 
crease of  the  moisture  of  the  egg,  through  evaporation, 
and  the  air  taking  its  place,  which  operates  in  effecting  its 
alteration.  From  the  time-of  its  being  laid,  when  the 
egg  is  quite  full,  a  fluid  is  constantly  perspiring  through 
the  perforations  of  the  shell,  which  occasions  its  decay  ; 
and  this  proceeds  more  rapidly  in  warm  than  in  cold 
weather.  Although  an  egg  quite  fresh  is  proverbially 
"  full,"  yet  in  all  stale  eggs  there  is  some  vacancy,  which 
is  in  proportion  to  the  loss  they  have  sustained  through 


453 

evaporation.  If  the  end  of  a  fresh  egg  be  applied  to  the 
tongue,  it  feels  cold,  but  that  of  a  stale  egg  feels  warm, 
because  the  white  of  the  former  being  in  contact  with  the 
shell,  abstracts  the  heat  from  the  tongue  more  rapidly  than 
the  air  bubble  in  the  latter. 

To  preserve  eggs  completely  fresh,  therefore,  this  trans- 
piration must  be  stopped,  and  the  egg  kept  full.  Any  kind 
of  varnish  will  answer  this  purpose,  but  the  most  conveni- 
ent substance  is  mutton  suet,  or  a  mixture  of  that  and  beef 
suet.  This  is  rubbed  over  the  eggs  ;  the  most  effectual 
method  is  to  dip  the  eggs  into  this  melted  in  a  pipkin  ;  olive 
oil  will  also  answer.  They  should  be  afterward  wiped, 
to  take  off  the  superfluous  fat  or  oil,  which  might  become 
rancid,  for  all  that  is  wanted  is  to  stop  up  the  pores.  After 
this  anointing,  the  eggs  should  be  set  on  end  with  the  small 
end  uppermost,  wedged  close  together,  one  layer  over 
another  in  bran,  the  containing  box  being  closely  covered 
up.  Laid  upon  the  side,  the  yolk  will  adhere  to  the  shell. 
They  thus  come  into  use,  at  the  end  of  a  considerable  time, 
in  a  state  almost  equal  to  new  laid  e<rgs.  They  should 
be  done  over  with  the  suet  as  soon  as  possible  after  they 
are  laid.  Some  cover  them  with  a  solution  of  gum  arabic, 
which  is  preferable  to  fat.  Eggs  are  sometimes  packed 
in  bran,  meal  of  any  kind,  wood-ashes,  salt,  or  charcoal 
powder ;  but  these  substances  are  not  nearly  so  effectual 
alone,  as  when  the  eggs  are  first  done  over  with  the  above- 
mentioned  substances,  as  they  can  have  but  a  slight  influ- 
ence in  preventing  the  transpiration  we  have  mentioned. 
Eggs  should  never  be  suffered  to  continue  in  the  nest 
above  a  day,  since  the  warmth  which  they  receive  in  it 
from  the  hen  is  inimical  to  their  keeping.  It  should  be 
observed,  that  on  the  third  day  after  the  hen  begins  to  sit  on 
her  eggs  to  hatch  them,  they  are  rendered  unfit  for  use. 

It  is  said  that  the  dealers  in  eggs  immerse  them  for  a 
moment  in  oil  of  vitriol,  diluted  with  water,  as  a  means 


454 

of  preservation.  This  is  not  improbable,  for  the  acid 
would  dissolve  a  little  of  the  calcareous  matter  of  the  shell, 
forming  with  it  a  sulphate  of  lime,  which  would  be  depo- 
sited and  fill  up  the  pores. 

Another  mode  of. preserving  eggs  is  to  plunge  them  for 
five  minutes  in  water  heated  to  140Q  ;  they  are  then  taken 
out,  oiled  or  rubbed  with  suet,  and  packed  in  sawdust  or 
charcoal  powder  ;  they  will  keep  thus  for  a  year  or  two. 
Some  boil  them  for  one  minute,  which  preserves  them  a 
long  time,  probably  by  coagulating  the  portion  of  the  al- 
bumen next  to  the  shell.  If  boiled  hard  they  will  keep 
many  weeks  without  other  preparation. 

Eggs  are  very  liable  to  absorb  the  flavor  of  any  sub- 
stance they  are  kept  in  contact  with,  and  therefore  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  pack  them  in  anything  that  might 
communicate  a  flavor  ;  mahogany  shavings  will  impart 
to  them  a  peculiarly  disagreeable  taste ;  and  musty  straw 
will  likewise  give  them  an  unpleasant  flavor. 

PRESERVATION  OF  MILK. 

It  is  well  known  that  it  will  not  remain  fresh  for  many 
hours  in  warm  weather;  the  principal  care  must  there- 
fore be  to  keep  it  in  as  cool  a  place  as  possible  ;  stone 
shelves  are  preferable  to  wood  ;  and  a  room  connected 
with  an  ice-house  is  particularly  convenient.  The  milk- 
men of  Paris,  to  prevent  their  milk  from  turning  sour, 
sometimes  use  a  little  sub-carbonate  of  soda,  which 
unites  with  the  acid  as  it  forms  ;  provided  too  much  soda 
is  not  employed,  this  will  have  no  injurious  effect ;  a  little 
calcined  magnesia  will  answer  the  same  purpose. 

Milk  boiled  with  sugar  will  keep  some  time. 

PRESERVING  ROOTS,  FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES. 

It  had  been  long  a  desideratum  to  preserve  fruits  by 
some  cheap  method,  yet  such  as  would  keep  them  fit  for 


TWfi  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  455 

the  various  culinary  purposes,  as  making  tarts  and  other 
similar  dishes.  The  expense  of  preserving  them  with 
sugar  is  a  serious  objection  ;  for  except  the  sugar  is  in 
considerable  quantity,  the  success  is  very  uncertain.  Sugar 
also  overpowers  and  destroys  the  sub-acid  taste  so  desira- 
ble in  many  fruits :  those  which  are  preserved  in  this 
manner  are  chiefly  intended  for  the  desert. 

In  gathering  fruit  for  winter  store,  great  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  bruise  it,  nor  to  break  the  skin  ;  the  in- 
jured parts  soon  rot  and  spoil  the  sound  fruit  in  contact 
with  it.  To  prevent  this,  gardeners  even  have  instruments 
for  gathering  the  most  valuable  kinds  of  fruit  from  the 
trees,  without  touching  it  with  the  hand.  Fruit  intended 
to  be  stored,  should  never  be  beat  off*  the  trees,  or  by 
shaking  the  branches  till  it  drops,  if  this  can  be  avoided. 
They  are  best  gathered  on  a  fine  day,  when  they  are  most 
likely  to  be  dry ;  or  if  this  be  done  on  a  wet  day,  they 
should  be  dried  in  the  sun,  if  possible  ;  the  more  delicate 
kinds  do  not  bear  to  be  wiped,  as  this  rubs  off  their  bloom, 
which,  when  allowed  to  dry  on  some  fruits,  constitutes  a 
natural  varnish,  closing  up  the  pores,  and  preventing  the 
evaporation  of  the  juices. 

The  usual  mode  with  apples  and  pears  has  been,  to  lay 
them  first  in  heaps  for  a  fortnight  or  more,  covered  with 
mats  or  straw,  to  sweat,  as  it  is  called  ;  that  is,  by  a  very 
slight  fermentation  to  discharge  some  of  their  juice,  after 
which  the  skin  contracts  in  a  slight  degree  ;  but  this  is 
now  generally  disapproved  of,  and  it  is  thought  best  to 
carry  them  at  once  to  the  fruit-room,  where  they  are  laid 
upon  shelves  covered  with  white  paper,  after  wiping 
gently  each  fruit.  The  fruit-room  should  be  dry  and 
well-aired,  but  should  not  admit  the  sun.  The  finer  and 
larger  kinds  should  not  be  allowed  to  touch  each  other, 
but  should  be  kept  separate;  for  this  purpose. a  number 
of  shallow  trays  should  be  provided,  supported  above  each 


455  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

other  on  racks  or  stands.     There  should  be  the  means  of 
warming  the  room  in  very  cold  frosty  weather. 

Some  kinds  of  apples  and  pears  are  gathered  before  they 
are  quite  ripe,  and  the  ripening  is  completed  after  they 
are  gathered  ;  this  is  termed  the  maturation  of  the  fruit, 
and  it  appears  to  be  a  curious  and  interesting  natural  pro- 
cess.  This  subject  has  been  well  exanined  by  M.  Cou- 
verchel  in  a  paper  inserted  in  the  "Annales  de  Chirnie." 
He  conceived  that  the  acid  and  mucilaginous  matters  of 
fruit  nearly  ripe,  are  converted  into  sugar  by  a  process 
which  is  perhaps  chemical,  and  which  has  been  called  the 
saccharine  fermentation.  Had  such  fruit  remained  on 
the  tree  until  it  was  quite  ripe,  this  fermentation  would 
soon  have  passed  into  the  putrefactive  stage,  and  then  the 
fruit  could  not  be  preserved  without  extraordinary  means, 
such  as  extreme  cold,  sugar,  etc. 

In  general,  the  apples  and  pears  of  autumn  should  be 
gathered  ei^lit  days  before  they  are  ripe,  and  matured  in 
this  way.  In  fact,  there  are  some  fruits  that  are  never 
fit  for  eating,  except  they  are  treated  in  this  manner.  The 
principle  of  life  remains  in  vegetables  very  differently 
from  what  it  does  in  animals  ;  for  a  branch  cut  from  a 
tree  does  not  die  immediately,  but  will  grow,  on  being 
planted,  into  a  new  tree.  Flowers  that  have  been  cut  off 
when  only  buds,  blow  on  being  placed  in  water  ;  and 
the  head  of  a  carrot,  cut  off  a  little  below  the  top  of  the 
root,  if  placed  in  a  shallow  basin  of  water,  will  put  out 
leaves,  and  become  a  handsome  ornament.  Mr.  Knight 
is  of  opinion,  that  in  the  case  of  the  maturation  of  fruit,  it 
still  continues  to  be  in  a  living  state,  though  taken  from 
the  tree,  and  that  the  saccharine  matter  is  formed  in  the 
same  manner  as  it  would  if  growing.  Pears  kept  for 
maturation  may  bo  packed  carefully  with  dry  moss,  bran, 
or  sand  dried  in  an  oven,  in  baskets  lined  with  stout  pa- 
per. They  will  keep  in  this  way  through  the  winter. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  457 

Choice  apples  and  pears  are  sometimes  wrapped  singly 
in  paper,  and  put  into  glazed  jars,  with  covers.  When 
there  is  no  fruit-room, .a  cool  cellar  may  be  used,  or  they 
may  be  kept  in  baskets  packed  in  dry  straw,  and  kept  in 
a  dry  cool  room. 

The  free  access  of  the  atmosphere  being  one  of  the 
circumstances  essential  to  the  decomposition  of  animal 
and  vegetable  matter,  it  is  obvious  that  the  exclusion  of  it 
must  prevent  this  effect  from  taking  place,  and  that  con- 
quently,  if  such  substances  are  completely  kept  from  the 
contact  of  air,  they  cannot  change,  or  at  least  in  a  very 
inconsiderable  degree.  At  a  certain  depth  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  the  temperature  does  not  vary,  summer 
nor  winter,  and  it  is  never  so  cold  there  as  to  freeze.  This 
fact  has  been  taken  advantage  of  in  the  preservation  of 
provisons.  In  many  parts  of  Europe,  vegetables,  such  as 
potatoes,  turnips,  carrots,  onions,  etc.,  are  preserved  for 
one  or  more  years,  by  burying  them  in  deep  pits  in  a 
clay  soil,  which  they  burn  hard  before  using,  or  even  in 
a  dry  sandy  soil.  Caves  form  excellent  cellars,  on  ac- 
count of  the  equality  of  their  temperature. 

To  preserve  green  gooseberries,  currants,  or  green  peas, 
in  this  manner,  let  the  fruit  be  gathered  in  dry  weather, 
or  if  not,  let  them  be  dried  in  the  sun ;  cut  them  from  the 
stalks  with  scissors,  and  take  care  that  they  are  not  in  the 
least  wounded,  and  that  no  spoiled  or  bruised  ones  are 
mixed  with  the  rest.  Drop  them  gently  into  dry,  wide- 
rnouthed  bottles.  Cork  the  bottles  and  rosin  over  the  corks. 
Make  a  trench  in  the  garden  at  least  two  or  three  feet  deep, 
and  bury  the  bottles  in  it,  placing  the  corks  downward, 
to  keep  them  from  the  frost.  Should  the  frost  in  winter 
be  severe,  a  quantity  of  litter  from  the  stable  should  be 
laid  over  the  place,  where  they  have  been  put.  If  the 
bottles  are  placed  in  a  very  cool  cellar,  the  fruit  will 
keep  tolerably  well.  By  plunging  the  bottles  after  they 
20 


458 

are  corked,  for  a  few  minutes  in  hot  water,  the  berries  will 
keep  better. 

It  is  sometimes  safer  to  take  op.  certain  vegetables  be- 
fore hard  frosts  set  in,  where  the  cold  is  severe,  as  they 
may  be  preserved  by  artificial  means,  even  by  laying  on 
a  floor  inaccessible  to  the  frost ;  whereas,  if  left  in  the 
ground,  they  would  have  been  frozen  and  lost.  This,  in 
some  situations,  is  the  case  with  cabbages,  lettuce,  greens, 
endive,  leeks,  cauliflowers,  etc.  They  should  be  care- 
fully removed  in  dry  weather,  without  injuring  the  roots 
too  much.  Vegetables  only  a  little  touched  by  the  frost, 
may  be  recovered  by  soaking  in  cold  water. 

Potatoes  are  difficult  to  preserve  for  many  years,  and 
hence  they  are  considered  less  to  be  depended  upon  than 
wheat  against  years  of  scarcity  ;  but  as  they  are  seldom 
required  to  be  kept  longer  than  during  the  winter  and 
spring  seasons,  with  proper  preparations,  this  is  not  diffi- 
cult. 

When  preserved  in  considerable  quantities  by  the  far- 
mers, several  methods  are  put  in 
practice  in  different  districts ;  but 
the  principle  appears  to  be  merely 
to  keep  them  dry,  and  so  protected 
that  the  frost  cannot  reach  them. 
A  very  effectual  method  was  em- 
ployed by  Mr.  Young.  He  constructed  a  house  capa- 
ble of  holding  seven  hundred  bushels  of  potatoes,  and 
made  it  of  fir  posts,  a,  a,  (see  cut,)  having  the  interstices 
filled  in  with  watling ;  against  the  sides  of  this  he  laid 
straw,  and  against  that,  exteriorly,  he  put  earth  rammed 
tight  six  feet  thick  at  the  bottom,  and  eighteen  inches  at 
the  top.  The  roof  was  flat,  and  he  placed  on  it  a 
stack  of  beans.  The  beans  kept  out  the  weather,  and 
yet  admitted  any  steam  that  rose  from  the  potatoes,  and 
which  if  it  did  not  escape,  would  have  rotted  them.  A* 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  459 

roof  of  thatch  would  have  answered.  In  some  parts  of 
the  country,  they  are  kept  during  the  winter  in  pits  in  the 
ground,  where  the  soil  is  dry  and  light,  to  the  depth  of 
three  or  four  feet, lining  this  with  straw,  covering  them  with 
earth  to  protect  them  from  the  frost,  and  the  whole  thatch- 
ed. Roots,  as  potatoes,  turnips,  carrots,  etc.,  should  never 
be  divested  of  the  earth  adhering  to  them  when  taken  out 
of  the  ground,  as  it  tends  to  preserve  them  fresh,  the 
little  fibres  by  which  it  is  retained  continuing  still  to 
draw  some  nutriment  from  it ;  and  if  these  are  broken, 
the  juices  escape  through  the  broken  surfaces.  They 
should  be  wounded  as  little  as  possible. 

Where  the  quantity  is  not  considerable,  potatoes  may 
be  kept  in  a  cellar  under  ground,  where  the  temperature  is 
pretty  equal  and  never  very  low,  and  covered  with  straw  or 
mats  ;  but  in  spring,  they  should  be  frequently  examined 
and  turned  over ;  those  which  are  decayed  should  be  re- 
moved, and  the  shoots'  broken  off  closely,  if  any  of  them 
have  sprouted. 

Carrots  and  turnips  maybe  preserved  through  the  win- 
ter, by  taking  them  up  and  keeping  them  in  pits,  or  in  a 
dry  cellar  in  sand,  secure  from  frost.  The  heads  and 
roots  should  not  be  cut  off. 

Onions,  when  pulled  up,  should  be  laid  thinly  on  a 
gravel  walk,  and  turned  every  day  to  dry.  When  thor- 
oughly dried,  they  are  usually  strung  together  by  the 
tails,  and  hung  up  in  a  dry,  well-aired  place,  till  wanted 
for  use. 

Cabbages  are,  in  some  places,  preserved  all  winter  by 
burying  them  in  the  ground,  out  of  the  reach  of  the 
frost. 

PRESERVING  FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES  BY  MEANS  OP    SYRUP. 

A  great  number  of  fruits  may  be  preserved,  in  their 
natural  state,  in  a  fluid  transparent  syrup  of  a  proper 


460 

consistence,  that  penetrates  into  every  part  of  the  fruit. 
The  method  of  effecting  this  requires  considerable  care ; 
for  if  the  solution  of  sugar  is  too  weak,  in  consequence  of 
its  tendency  to  ferment,  it  will  quickly  become  sour  if 
kept  in  a  temperate  degree  of  heat ;  such  a  solution  there-  • 
fore,  is  not  calculated  to  prevent  the  natural  fermentation 
of  vegetable  juices  ;  and  if  the  syrup  be  too  much  concen- 
trated, the  sugar  crystallizes,  and  thus  spoils  the  fruit. 

Proper  strength  of  syrup. — It  has  been  ascertained,  that 
a  solution  of  sugar,  prepared  by  dissolving  two  parts  of 
doubled-refined  sugar  in  one  of  water,  and  boiling  this  a 
little,  affords  a  syrup  of  the  right  degree  of  strength,  and 
which  neither  ferments  nor  crystallizes.  This  appears 
to  be  the  degree  called  smooth  by  the  confectioners,  and 
is  proper  to  be  used  for  the  purposes  of  preserving  fruits. 

The  syrup  employed  should  sometimes  be  clarified, 
which  is  done  in  the  following  manner  :  Dissolve  two 
pounds  of  loaf-sugar  in  a  pint  of  water  ;  add  to  this  solu- 
tion the  white  of  an  egg,  and  beat  them  well.  Put  the 
preserving  pan  upon  the  fire  with  the  solution  ;  stir  it 
with  a  wooden  spatula,  and  when  it  begins  to  swell  and 
boil  up,  throw  in  some  cold  water,  or  a  little  oil  to  damp 
the  boiling  ;  for  as  it  rises  suddenly,  if  it  should  boil  over, 
it  would  take  fire,  being  of  a  very  inflammable  nature. 
Let  it  boil  up  again,  then  take  it  off,  and  remove  carefully 
the  scum  that  has  risen.  Boil  the  solution  again,  throw 
in  a  little  more  cold  water ;  remove  the  scum,  and  so  on 
for  three  or  four  times  successively  ;  then  strain  it.  It  is 
considered  to  be  sufficiently  boiled,  when  some  taken  up 
in  a  spoon  pours  out  like  oil ;  and  when  a  thin  skin  ap- 
pears on  blowing  upon  the  syrup,  it  is  judged  to  be  com- 
pletely saturated.  The  heat  when  sufficiently  boiled,  and 
of  the  proper  strength,  is  221°.  In  this  manner  the  syrup 
will  become  quite  transparent.  It  is  scarcely  necessary 
to  say,  that  if  a  greater  quantity  of  syrup  is  wanted,  the" 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  461 

proportions  of  sugar  and  water  must  still  be  the  same. 
Instead  of  loaf-sugar,  some  have  used  only  brown  sugar, 
which  they  have  clarified  to  do  as  well  as  refined  sugar, 
by  mixing  with  the  solution  some  pounded  charcoal,  which 
is  boiled  with  the  sugar  :  by  straining  repeatedly  this 
black  mixture,  the  charcoal  is  kept  back,  and  the  sugar 
becomes  colorless. 

In  the  confectioner's  art  there  is  a  great  nicety  in  pro- 
portioning the  degree  of  concentration  of  the  syrup  very 
exactly  to  each  particular  case  ;  and  they  know  this  by 
signs,  and  express  it  by  certain  technical  terms.  But  to 
distinguish  these  properly,  requires  very  great  attention 
and  considerable  experience. 

The  principal  thing  to  be  acquainted  with  is  the  fact, 
that  in  proportion  as  the  syrup  is  longer  boiled,  its  water 
will  become  evaporated,  and  its  consistence  will  be  thicker. 
Great  care  must  be  taken  in  the  management  of  the  fire, 
that  the  syrup  does  not  boil  over,  and  that  the  boiling  is 
not  carried  to  such  an  extent  as  to  burn  the  sugar. 

We  give  the  following  degrees  of  boiling  the  syrup,  as 
distinguished  by  the  professed  confectioner  ;  ^though,  per- 
haps, such  nicety  is  seldom  attained  in  domestic  practice. 
The  first  degree  is  called  the  thread,  which  is  subdivided 
into  the  little  and  great  thread.  If  you  dip  the  finger  into 
the  syrup,  and  apply  it  to  the  thumb,  the  tenacity  of  the 
syrup  will,  on  separating  the  finger  and  thumb,  afford  a 
thread  which  shortly  breaks  ;  this  is  the  little  thread.  If 
the  thread,  from  the  greater  tenacity,  and  consequently, 
greater  strength  of  the  syrup,  admits  of  a  greater  exten- 
sion of  the  finger  and  thumb,  it  is  then  called  the  great 
thread.  2nd.  By  longer  boiling  you  obtain  the  pearl,  which 
is  denoted  by  the  thread  admitting  of  being  drawn  without 
breaking,  by  the  utmost  separation  of  the  thumb  and 
finger  :  this  makes  candied  sugar.  3rd.  By  further  boil- 
ing, you  obtain  the  Mow,  which  is  known  by  dipping  a 


462  THE  FARRIER'S  AND 

skimmer  with  holes  into  the  syrup,  and  blowing  through 
them  ;  if  bubbles  are  perceived,  what  is  termed  the  blow 
is  obtained.  4th.  The  feather  implies  more  numerous 
bubbles  ;  and  then  the  sugar  will  fly  off  like  flakes  while 
the  skimmer  is  quickly  tossed.  5th.  The  ball  admits,  by 
additional  boiling,  the  syrup  to  be  rolled  into  a  ball,  pre- 
viously dipping  the  finger  into  water,  then  into  the  syrup, 
and  subsequently  into  the  water  again.  6th.  The  crack 
denotes  that  it  does  not  stick  to  the  tooth,  and  cracks  when 
broken.  To  know  when  it  has  attained  this  degree,  dip 
a  teaspoon  or  skewer  into  the  sugar,  and  let  it  drop  to 
the  bottom  of  a  pan  of  cold  water ;  if  the  sugar  remain 
hard,  it  has  attained  the  degree  termed  crack.  7th.  The 
last  degree  is  termed  the  caramel,  beyond  which  a  partial 
burning,  or  rather  carbonizing,  of  the  syrup  will  take  place. 
This  is  a  very  elegant  covering  for  sweetmeats.  We 
should  observe,  that  ornamental  confectionary  can  seldom 
be  executed  well  but  by  the  hands  of  professed  confec- 
tioners. 

Pulpy  fruits  are  preserved  whole  in  syrup,  as  follows : 
The  fruits  that  are  the  most  fit  for  this  mode  are,  apricots, 
peaches,  nectarines,  apples,  greengages,  plums  of  all  kinds, 
and  pears.  As  an  example,  take  some  apricots  not  too 
ripe  ;  make  a  small  slit  at  the  stem  end,  and  push  out  the 
stone  ;  simmer  them  in  the  water  till  they  are  softened, 
and  about  half  done,  and  afterward  throw  them  into  cold 
water.  When  they  have  cooled,  take  them  out,  and  drain 
them.  Put  the  apricots  into  the  preserving  pan,  with  suf- 
ficient syrup  to  cover  them  ;  let  them  boil  up  three  or 
four  times,  and  then  skim  them  ;  remove  them  from  the 
fire,  pour  tbem  into  an  earthen  pan,  and  let  them  cool  till 
next  day.  Boil  them  up  three  days  successively,  skim- 
ming each  time,  and  they  will  then  be  finished,  and  in  a 
state  fit  to  be  put  into  pots  for  use.  After  each  boiling,  it 
is  proper  to  examine  into  the  state  of  the  syrup  when  cold  ; 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HANDBOOK.  483 

if  too  thin,  it  will  bear  additional  boiling;  if  too  thick,  it 
may  be  lowered  with  more  syrup  of  the  usual  standard. 
The  reason  why  the  fruit  is  emptied  out  of  the  preserving 
pan  into  an  earthen  pan,  is,  that  the  acid  of  the  fruit  acts 
upon  the  copper  of  which  the  preserving  pans  are  usually 
made.  From  this  example,  the  process  of  preserving 
fruits  by  syrup  will  be  easily  comprehended.  The  .first 
•object  is,  to  soften  the  fruit,  by  blanching  or  boiling  in 
water,  in  -order  that  the  syrup,  by  which  it  is  preserved, 
may  penetrate  through  its  substance.  In  proportion  as 
the  frail  is  unripe  or  hard,  it  will  require  to  be  boiled 
three  or  four  times  in  the  syrup  ;  when  it  is  of  a  softer 
texture,  the  syrup  drained  off  and  poured  on  the  fruit  in 
its  boiling  state,  will  be  sufficient,  as  it  is  important  to 
retain  the  shape  and  appearance  of  the  fruit  as  perfect  as 
possible. 

Fruits  preserved  by  syrup  without  heat. — Many  fruits 
when  preserved  by  boiling,  lose  much  of  their  peculiar 
and  delicate  flavor,  as  for  instance  pine-apples ;  and  this 
inconvenience  may,  in  some  instances,  be  remedied  by 
preserving  them  without  heat.  Cut  the  fruit  in  slices, 
about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  thick  ;  strew  powdered  loaf- 
sugar  an  eighth  of  an  inch  thick  in  the  bottom  of  a  jar, 
and  put  the  slices  on  it.  Put  more  sugar  on  this,  and 
then  another  layer  of  the  slices,  and  so  on,  till  the  jar 
is  full.  Place  the  jar  with  the  fruit  up  to  the  neck  in 
boiling  water,  and  keep  it  there  till  the  sugar  is  complete- 
ly dissolved,  which  may  take  half  an  hour,  removing  the 
scum  as  it  rises.  Lastly,  tie  a  wet  bladder  over  the  mouth 
of-the  jar,  or  cork  and  wax  it. 

Dry  confects,  or  fruits  preserved  by  boiling  in  syrup  and 
drying  afterward. — Any  of  the  fruits  that  have  been  pre- 
served in  syrup  may  be  converted  into  dry  preserves,  by 
first  draining  them  from  the  syrup,  and  them  drying  in  a 
stove  or  very  moderate  oven  ;  adding  to  them  a  quantity 


464 

of  powdered  loaf-sugar,  which  will  gradually  penetrate 
the  fruit,  while  the  fluid  parts  of  the  syrup  gently  evapo- 
rate. They  should  be  dried  in  a  stove  or  oven,  on  a  sieve, 
and  turned  every  six  or  eight  hours,  fresh  powdered  sugar 
being  sifted  over  them  every  time  they  are  turned.  Af- 
terward, they  are  to  be  kept  in  a  dry  situation  in  drawers 
or  boxes.  Currants  and  cherries  preserved  whole  in  this 
manner,  in  bunches,  are  extremely  elegant,  and  have  a 
fine  flavor.  In  this  way  it  is  also  that  orange  and  lemon 
chips  are  preserved. 

Marmalades,  jams,  and  fruit  pastes. — The  preserves 
which  bear  these  names  are  of  the  same  nature,  and  are 
now  in  very  general  request :  they  are  prepared  without 
difficulty,  by  attending  to  a  few  directions  ;  they  are  little 
expensive,  and  they  may  be  kept  without  spoiling  for  a 
considerable  time. 

Marmalades  and  jams  differ  a  little  from  each  other : 
they  are  preserves  of  a  half  liquid  consistence,  made  by 
boiling  the  pulp  of  fruits,  and  sometimes  part  of  the  rinds, 
with  sugar.  The  appellation  of  marmalade  is  applied  to 
those  confects  which  are  composed  of  the  firmer  fruits, 
as  pine- apples,  or  the  rinds  of  oranges  ;  whereas  jams  are 
made  of  the  more  juicy  berries,  such  as  strawberries, 
raspberries,  currants,  mulberries,  etc.  Fruit  pastes  area 
kind  of  marmalades,  consisting  of  the  pulp  of  fruits  first 
evaporated  to  a  proper  consistence,  and  afterward  boiled 
with  sugar.  The  mixture  is  then  poured  into  a  mould, 
or  spread  out  on  sheets  of  tin,  and  subsequently  dried  in 
the  oven  or  stove,  till  it  has  acquired  the  state  of  a  paste. 
From  a  sheet  of  this  paste,  strips  may  be  cut  and  formed 
into  any  shape  that  may  be  desired  ;  as  knots,  rings,  etc. 

In  more  juicy  fruits,  the  pulp  is  boiled  till  much  of 
the  aqueous  part  is  evaporated,  before  the  sugar  is  added. 
This  is  best  performed  in  broad  shallow  vessels  ;  but 
when  the  pulpy  matter  begins  to  get  thick,  great  care  is 


465 

necessary  to  prevent  its  burning.  This  accident  is  al- 
most unavoidable  if  the  quantity  be  large,  and  the  fire 
applied,  as  is  often  the  case,  immediately  under  the  pan : 
but  it  may  be  entirely  avoided  by  putting  the  pulpy  mass, 
when  thickened  to  the  consistence  of  a  syrup,  in  shallow 
earthen  pans,  and  placing  them  in  an  oven  with  its  door 
open,  moderately  heated  :  in  this  manner  the  heat  will  be 
applied  equally  to  every  part.  A  still  better  plan,  but 
more  tedious,  is  to  place  the  vessel  containing  the  pulp  in 
another  vessel  containing  boiling  water,  which  is  called 
the  water  bath.  The  application  of  steam,  by  means  of 
what  is  called  the  steam  preserving  pan,  is  the  best  con- 
trivance for  making  marmalades,  jams,  and  all  other  culi- 
nary preparations  which  are  liable  to  become  injured  by 
a  degree  of  heat  exceeding  that  of  boiling  water. 

Orange  marmalade. — Scoop  out  the  pulp  of  Seville 
oranges  into  a  hair  sieve,  beat  it,  and  press  the  juice 
through  into  a  pan  below  ;  boil  the  skins  in  water  in  the 
preserving  pan,  till  they  are  tender  ;  then  take  out  the 
white  part,  and  cut  them  into  small  strips  :  add  this  to  the 
juice,  and  to  each  pound  of  the  fruit  add  a  pound  of  clari- 
fied sugar,  and  boil  the  whole  for  about  half  an  hour  to  the 
degree  called  the  feather.  Take  it  off,  stir  and  mix  it 
well,  and  boil  again  till  it  hangs  to  the  spoon,  being  the 
degree  called  the  crack.  Take  care  not  to  boil  it  too 
much,  but  watch  it  carefully,  as  the  proper  consistence  is 
important.  When  right,  pour  it  into  pots ;  cover  them 
with  paper  dipped  in  brandy,  and  tie  a  bladder  over  it. 
Common  oranges  are  not  equal  to  the  Seville,  but  they 
will  make  very  good  marmalade.  If  the  sugar  is  broken 
in  pieces,  and  boiled  with  the  fruit,  without  being  first 
clarified,  it  will  do  ;  but  then  it  must  be  well  skimmed  as 
it  boils.  Marmalade  should  be  made  between  February 
and  the  end  of  March,  as  the  Seville  oranges  are  then  in 
their  best  state. 

20* 


1  466  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

Scotch  orange-chip  marmalade,  according  to  Meg  Dods.— 
Take  equal  weight  of  fine  loaf-sugar  and  Seville  oranges  ; 
wipe  and  grate  the  oranges,  but  not  too  much.  (The  outer 
grate,  boiled  up  with  sugar,  will  make  an  excellent 
conserve  for  rice,  custard,  or  batter  puddings.)  Cut  the 
oranges  the  cross  way,  and  squeeze  out  the  juice  through 
a  small  sieve  ;  scrape  off  the  pulp  from  the  inner  skins, 
and  pick  out  the  seeds  ;  boi4  the  skins  perfectly  tender, 
changing  the  water  to  take  off  part  of  the  bitter.  When 
cool,  scrape  the  coarse,  white,  thready  part  from  the  skins, 
and  trussing  three  or  four  skins  together  for  dispatch,  cut 
them  into  narrow  chips  ;  clarify  the  sugar,  and  put  the 
chips,  pulp,  and  juice  to  it;  add,  when  boiled  for  ten 
minutes,  the  juice  and  grate  of  two  lemons  to  every  dozen 
of  oranges.  Skim  and  boil  for  twenty  minutes  ;  pot,  and 
cover  when  cold. 

Quince  marmalade. — Boil  some  ripe  quinces  in  a  small 
quantity  of  water  till  they  are  tender  ;  pare  the  skins  off, 
cut  them  into  quarters,  and  take  out  the  cores  ;  stew  the 
parings  and  cores  in  some  water  ;  strain  this,  and  add  the 
water  to  the  quartered  quinces.  Put  the  whole  into  a  pre- 
serving pan,  with  as  much  sugar  as  the  weight  of  the 
quinces.  Boil  this  till  it  is  of  the  proper  consistence  for 
a  marmalade,  bruising  it  with  a  wooden  spatula. 

A  marmalade  may  be  made  in  the  same  manner  by 
using  pears,  apricots,  peaches,  pine-apples,  or  any  other 
fruit  of  a  pulpy  nature. 

Jams  require  the  same  care  and  attention  in  the  boiling 
as  marmalade  ;  the  slightest  degree  of  burning  communi- 
cates a  disagreeable  empyreumatic  taste,  and  if  they  are 
not  boiled  sufficiently  they  will  not  keep.  That  they  may 
keep,  it  is  necessary  not  to  be  sparing  of  sugar. 

Raspberry  jam. — Pick  a  sufficient  quantity  of  fresh  ripe 
raspberries,  gathered  on  a  dry  day  ;  mash  them,  and  pass 
them  through  a  wicker  sieve  ;  to  one  pint  of  the  pulp  add 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  467 

a  pound  of  loaf-sugar,  pounded  or  broken  small ;  put  the 
whole  into  a  preserving  pan  over  a  clear  fire.  When  it 
begins  to  boil,  skim  it  well,  and  stir  it  for  half  an  hour, 
taking  great  care  not  to  let  it  burn.  When  done,  put  it 
into  small  pots,  cut  some  pieces  of  paper  round  to  the  size 
of  the  pot ;  dip  them  in  brandy,  and  lay  them  on  the  jam  : 
also  tie  another  paper  over  the  spot.  Some  add  a  little 
red  currant  juice  to  the  raspberries  ;  but  this  will  demand 
some  more  sugar :  others  add  a  little  honey  to  make  it 
richer. 

Strawberry  jam  and,  barberry  jam  are  not  made  in  the 
same  manner.  The  sugar  used  may  first  be  clarified : 
add  one-sixth  of  currant  juice. 

White  gooseberry  jam. — This  is  a  homely  preparation, 
but  very  useful  where  there  are  children.  It  is  made  as 
the  last,  only  the  gooseberries,  which  should  be  quite  ripe, 
must  be  well  boiled,  until  they  begin  to  break.  Each  pound 
of  fruit  requires  a  pound  of  sugar  ;  and  the  gentle  boiling 
must  be  continued  till  the  the  jam  is  of  the  right  consist- 
ence. Red  gooseberry  jam  is  made  in  the  same  way. 

Currant  jam  may  be  made  in  the  same  way. 

The  months  when  jams  and  jellies  are  usually  made 
are  June  and  July.  They  should  be  examined  in 
August,  to  see  if  there  be  any  tendency  to  fermentation 
or  feny  mouldiness  ;  if  so,  they  must  be  reboiled  and  pre- 
pared over  again.  In  warm  seasons  this  is  very  liable  to 
happen. 

To  preserve  damsons  for  pics. — Take  equal  weight  ot 
fruit  and  clarified  sugar.  If  any  of  the  damsons  are 
broken,  boil  them  first  some  time  in  sugar  ;  then  add  the 
whole  quantity  of  fruit,  and  boil  till  it  jellies  :  pot,  and  tie 
paper  over. 

Fruit  jellies. — These  are  compounds  of  the  juices  of 
fruits  combined  with  sugar,  concentrated  by  boiling  tr 
such  a  consist -"!T.;e  that  the  liq-iid.  upo-i  cooling,  assumes1 


468  THE  FARMER'S 

the  form  of  a  tremulous  jelly.  Vegetable  jelly  is  a  dlS" 
tinct  principle  existing  in  fruits,  which  possesses  the  prop- 
erty of  gelatinizing  when  bailed  and  ..cooled  :  but  it  is  a 
principle  entirely  different  from  the  gelantine  of  animal 
bodies,  although  the  name  of  jelly,  common  to  both,  some- 
times leads  to  an  erroneous  idea  on  that  subject.  Animal 
jelly,  or  gelantine,  is  glue ;  whereas,  vegetable  jelly  is 
rather  analogous  to  gum,  though  different  from  it,  and  not 
nearly  so  nutritious  as  animal  jelly  or  gelantine.  In 
preparing  vegetable  jellies,  it  is  necessary  to  guard  against 
boiling  them  too  long,  since  this  destroys  their  property 
of  gelatinizing,  and  they  then  assume  the  appearance  of 
mucilage  or  gum  ;  and  this  accident  is  most  likely  to 
occur,  when  the  quantity  of  sugar  is  too  small  to  absorb 
the  water  of  the  juice.  Jellies  are  most  perfect,  as  to 
beauty  and  transparency,  when  clarified  sugar  is  used: 
but  for  ordinary  purposes,  refined  sugar  answers  very 
well. 

Currant  jelly. — The  usual  method  of  obtaining  the  juice 
is  to  bruise  the  currants,  and  to  pass  them  through  a  sieve  ; 
but  then  it  is  apt  to  be  turbid  and  thick.  A  better  mode 
is  to  warm  the  fruit  by  steaming  it,  or  by  putting  it  closely 
covered  into  a  slow  oven ;  the  juice  will  then  flow  from 
it  without  much  pressure.  Put  it  now  in  the  pre- 
serving pan  on  the  fire  to  boil,  in  order  to  evaporate  some 
Df  the  water  ;  let  it  boil  a  quarter  of  an  hour  ;  then  take  it 
:>ff,  skim  it,  and  pass  it  through  a  flannel  bag  to  render  it 
3lear  ;  add  sugar  to  it  in  the  proportion  of  a  pound  and  a 
^alf  of  refined  sugar  to  one  pint  of  the  juice,  and  put  this 
)n  the  fire  to  simmer  very  gently,  until,  by  dipping  a  spoon 
n  the  jelly,  and  again  raising  it,  the  jelly  becomes  stiff: 
hen  the  boiling  is  sufficient-  Take  it  now  off  the  fire, 
ind  let  it  stand  till  the  scum  has  collected  on  the  surface  : 
•emove  this,  run  the  whole  through  a  hair  sieve,  and  put  the 
)lear  jelly  into  pots.  When  cold,  cover  the  surface  with 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  469 

jelly  paper  steeped  in  brandy.  What  remains  on  the  sieve 
will  do  to  make  pies,  or  mix  with  any  common  jam  ;  and 
the  jelly  will  be  more  delicate  if  no  squeezing  is  employed. 
A  small  proportion  of  raspberries  will  improve  the  flavor. 
White  currant  jelly  is  made  in  a  similar  manner ;  only 
the  finest  sugar  should  be  used,  and  the  boiling  and  strain- 
ing should  be  done  very  carefully,  as  the  color  is  easily 
injured.  White  raspberry  juice  may  be  added.  The 
sugar  should  be  high-boiled. 

Black  currant  jelly  is  generally  used  medicinally  ;  it  is 
made  in  the  same  manner. 

Grape  jelly. — Spread  some  of  the  ripest  grapes  on  straw  ; 
at  the  end  of  a  fortnight,  pluck  them  from  the  stalks, 
and  boil  them  for  five  or  six  minutes  only,  in  order  that 
the  juice  may  be  extracted  with  ease  by  pressure ;  next 
•pass  the  juice  through  a  sieve,  add  a  quarter  of  a  pound 
of  white  sugar  to  each  pound  of  juice,  and  boil  the  whole 
for  half  an  hour,  and  afterward  set  it  to  cool;  in  twenty- 
four  hours  it  will  be  a  fine  jelly,  useful  to  invalids. 

CHOICE  OF  MEAT,  FISH  AND  POULTRY. 

Beef. — The  grain  of  ox  beef,  when  good,  is  loose,  the  meat 
red,  and  the  fat  inclining  to  yellow.  Cow  beef,  on  the  con- 
trary, has  a  closer  grain,  a  whiter  fat,  but  meat  scarcely 
as  red  as  that  of  ox  beef.  Inferior  beef,  which  is  meat  ob- 
tained from  ill-fed  animals,  or  from  those  which  had  become 
too  old  for  food,  may  be  known  by  a  hard  skinny  fat,  a 
dark  red  lean,  and,  in  old  animals,  a  line  of  a  horny  texture 
running  through  the  meat  of  the  ribs.  When  meat  press- 
ed by  the  finger  rises  up  quickly,  it  maybe  considered  as 
that  of  an  animal  which  was  in  its  prime;  when  the  dent 
made  by  pressure  returns  slowly,  or  remains  visible,  the 
animal  had  probably  passed  its  prime,  and  the  meat  con- 
sequently must  be  of  inferior  quality. 


470  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

Veal  should  be  delicately  white,  though  it  is  often  juicy 
and  well  flavored  when  rather  dark  in  color.  Butchers, 
it  is  said,  bleed  calves  purposely  before  killing  them,  with 
a  view  to  make  the  flesh  white  ;  but  this  also  makes  it  dry 
and  flavorless.  On  examining  the  loin,  if  the  fat  envelop, 
ing  the  kidney  be  white  and  firm-looking,  the  meat  will 
probably  be  prime  and  recently  killed.  Veal  will  not 
keep  as  long  as  an  older  meat,  especially  in  hot  or  damp 
weather  ;  when  going,  the  fat  becomes  soft  and  moist,  the 
meat  flabby  and  spotted,  and  somewhat  porous  like  sponge. 
Large  overgrown  veal  is  inferior  to  small,  delicate,  yet 
fat  veal.  The  fillet  of  a  cow  calf  is  known  by  the  udder 
attached  to  it,  and  by  the  softness  of  the  skin  ;  it  is  prefer- 
able to  the  veal  of  a  bull  calf. 

Mutton. — The  meat  should  be  firm  and  close  in  grain, 
and  red  in  color,  the  fat  white  and  firm.  Mutton  is  in  its 
prime  when  the  sheep  is  about  five  years  old,  though  it  is 
often  killed  much  younger.  If  too  young,  the  flesh  feels 
tender  when  pinched ;  if  too  old,  on  being  pinched  it 
wrinkles  up,  and  so  remains.  In  young  mutton,  the  fat 
readily  separates  j  in  old,  it  is  held  together  by  strong 
strings  of  skin. 

In  sheep  diseased  of  the  rot,  the  flesh  is  very  pale-color, 
ed,  the  fat  inclining  to  yellow,  the  meat  appears  loose  from 
the  bone,  and  if  squeezed,  drops  of  water  ooze  out  from 
the  grains;  after  cooking,  the  meat  drops  clean  away 
from  the  bones. 

Wether  mutton  is  preferred  to  that  of  the  ewe  ;  it  may 
be  known  by  the  lump  of  fat  on  the  inside  of  the  thigh. 

Lamb. — This  meat  will  not  keep  long  after  it  is  killed. 
The  large  vein  in  the  neck  is  bluish  in  color  when  the 
fore-quarter  is  fresh,  green  when  becoming  stale.  In  the 
hind-quarter,  if  not  recently  killed,  the  fat  of  the  kidney 
will  have  a  slight  smell,  and  the  knuckle  will  have  lost  its 
firmness. 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HA.ND-BOOK.  471 

Pork. — When  good,  the  rind  is  smooth,  and  cool  to  the 
touch  ;  when  changing,  from  being  too  long  killed,  it  be- 
comes flaccid  and  clammy.  Enlarged  glands,  called 
kernels,  in  the  fat,  are  marks  of  an  ill-fed  or  diseased 

Pig- 

Bacon  should  have  a  thin  rind,  and  the  fat  should  be 
firm  and  tinged  red  by  the  curing ;  the  flesh  should  be  of 
a  clear  red,  without  intermixture  of  yellow,  and  it  shoula 
firmly  adhere  to  the  bone.  To  judge  of  the  state  of  a  ham, 
plunge  a  knife  into  it  to  the  bone  ;  on  drawing  it  back,  if 
particles  of  meat  adhere  to  it,  or  if  the  smell  is  disagree- 
able, the  curing  has  not  been  effectual,  and  the  ham  is  not 
good  ;  it  should,  in  such  a  state,  be  immediately  cooked. 
In  buying  a  ham,  a  short  thick  one  is  to  be  preferred  to 
one  long  and  thin.  Of  English  hams,  Yorkshire,  West- 
moreland, and  Hampshire  are  most  esteemed  :  of  foreign, 
the  Westphalia. 

Venison. — When  good,  the  fat  is  clear,  bright,  and  of 
considerable  thickness.  To  know  when  it  is  necessary  to 
cook  it,  a  knife  must  be  plunged  into  the  haunch ;  and 
from  the  smell,  the  cook  must  determine  on  dressing  or 
keeping  it. 

In  choosing  poultry,  the  age  of  the  bird  is  the  chief 
point  to  be  attended  to. 

An  old  turkey  has  rough  and  reddish  legs  ;  a  young 
one  smooth  and  black.  Fresh  killed,  the  eyes  are  full 
and  clear,  and  the  feet  moist.  When  it  has  been  kept 
too  long,  the  parts  about  the  vent  begin  to  wear  a  greenish 
discolored  appearance. 

Common  domestic  fowls,  when  young,  have  the  legs  and 
combs  smooth  ;  when  old,  they  are  •  rough,  and  on  the 
breast  long  hairs  are  found  instead  of  feathers.  Fowls 
and  chickens  should  be  plump  on  the  breast,  fat  on  the 
back,  and  white-legged. 

Geese. — The  bills  and  feet  are  red  when  old ;    yellow 


•172 

when  young.  Fresh  killed,  the  feet  are  pliable;  stiff 
when  too  long  kept.  Geese  are  called  green  while  they 
are  only  two  or  three  months  old. 

Ducks. — Choose  them  with  supple  feet,  and  hard  plump 
breasts.  Tame  ducks  have  yellow  feet,  wild  ones  red. 

Pigeons  are  very  indifferent  food  when  they  are  too 
long  kept.  Suppleness  of  the  feet  show  them  to  be  young  ; 
the  state  of  the  flesh  is  flaccid  when  they  are  getting  bad 
from  keeping.  Tame  pigeons  are  larger  than  the  wild. 

Hares  and  rabbits,  when  old,  have  the  haunches  thick, 
the  ears  dry  and  tough,  and  the  claws  dry  and  rugged. 
A  young  hare  has  claws  smooth  and  sharp,  ears  that  easi- 
ly tear,  and  a  narrow  cleft  in  the  lip.  A  leveret  is  dis- 
tinguished from  a  hare  by  a  knob  or  small  bone  near  the 
foot. 

Partridges,  when  young,  have  yellow  legs  and  dark- 
colored  bills.  Old  partridges  are  very  indifferent  eat- 
ing. 

Woodcocks  and  snipes,  when  old,  have  the  feet  thick 
and  hard  ;  when  these  are  soft  and  tender,  they  are  both 
young  and  fresh  killed.  When  their  bills  become  moist, 
and  their  throats  muddy,  they  have  been  too  long  killed. 

Turbot,  and  all  flat  white  fish,  are  rigid  and  firm  when 
fresh  ;  the  under  side  should  be  of  a  rich  cream  color. 
When  out  of  season,  or  too  long  kept,  this  becomes  a  bluish 
white,  and  the  flesh  soft  and  flaccid.  A  clear  bright  eye 
in  fish  is  also  a  mark  of  being  fresh  and  good. 

Cod  is  known  to  be  fresh  by  the  rigidity  of  the  muscles 
(or  flesh,)  the  redness  of  the  gills,  and  clearness  of  the 
eyes.  Crimping  much  improves  this  fish. 

Salmon. — The  flavor  and  excellence  of  this  fish  depends 
upon  its  freshness,  and  the  shortness  of  the  time  since  it 
was  caught ;  fir  no  method  can  completely  preserve  the 
delicate  flavor  it  has.  when  just  taken  out  of  the  water. 
A  great  deal  of  what  is  brought  to  London  lias  been  packed 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  473 

in  ice,  and  comes  from  the  Scotch  and  Irish  rivers,  and 
though  quite  fresh,  is  not  equal  to  the  Thames  salmon. 

Mackerel'  must  be  perfectly  fresh,  or  it  is  a  very  indif- 
ferent fish ;  it  will  neither  bear  carriage,  nor  being  kept 
many  hours  out  of  the  water.  The  firmness  of  tne  flesh, 
and  the  clearness  of  the  eyes,  must  be  the  criterion  of 
fresh  mackerel,  as  they  are  of  all  other  fish. 

Herrings  can  only  be  eaten  when  very  fresh,  and,  like 
mackerel,  will  not  remain  good  many  hours  after  they 
are  caught. 

Fresh-water  fish. — The  remarks  as  to  firmness  and 
clear  fresh  eyes,  apply  to  this  variety  of  fish,  of  which 
there  are  carp,  tench,  pike,  perch,  eels,  etc. 

Lobsters,  recently  caught,  have  always  some  remains 
of  muscular  action  in  the  claws,  which  may  be  excited 
by  pressing  the  eyes  with  the  finger ;  when  this  cannot 
*  be  produced,  the  lobster  must  have  been  too  long  kept. 
When  boiled,  the  tail  preserves  its  elasticity  if  fresh,  but 
loses  it  as  soon  as  it  becomes  stale.  The  heaviest  lobsters 
are  the  best ;  when  light,  they  are  watery  and  poor. 

Crab  and  crayfish  must  be  chosen  by  observations  simi- 
lar to  those  given  above  in  the  choice  of  lobsters.  Crabs 
have  an  agreeable  smell  when  fresh. 

Prawns  and  shrimps,  when  fresh,  are  firm  and  crisp. 

Oysters. — If  fresh,  the  shell  is  firmly  closed  ;  when  the 
shells  of  oysters  are  opened,  they  are  dead,  and  unfit  for 
food.  The  small  shelled  oysters,  the  Py fleet,  Colchester, 
and  Milford  are  the  finest  in  flavor.  Larger  kinds  called 
rock  oysters,  are  generally  considered  only  fit  for  stewing 
and  sauces,  though  some  persons  prefer  them. 

PANADAS. 

Meat  panada. — Take  the  meat  of  a  chicken  previously 
cookedj  or  the  inside  of  a  sirloin  of  beef  or  of  a  loin  of 

; 


474  THE  FARMER'S  AND 

mutton,  whichever  is  recommended  by  the  medical  at 
tendant;  mince  it  small,  and  pound  it  till  it  will  pass 
through  a  sieve,  when  mixed  with  broth  or  hot  water, 
which  will  be  according  to  the  state  of  the  patient,  more 
or  less  rich  and  nourishing  :  unless  ordered,  no  other  sea- 
soning than  a  sprinkling  of  salt  should  be  added.  When 
the  panada  is  prepared,  it  should  be  put  into  an  earthen 
vessel,  and  placed  in  a  cool  situation.  A  little  of  it, 
taken  out  as  it  is  wanted,  should  be  warmed  up  in  a  little 
panakin.  It  must  be  stirred  all  the  time  it  is  on  the  fire, 
and  served  with  delicate  thin  sippets  of  bread. 

Bread  panada. — Grate  a  teacupful  of  bread,  and  mix 
with  it  some  beef  or  mutton  gravy,  beating  the  bread  with 
a  spoon  till  perfectly  smooth.  Then  boil  it  till  it  thickens, 
stirring  it  all  the  time  it  is  boiling. 

Another  recipe  for  bread  panada. — Boil  a  glass  of  white 
wine  and  the  same  quantity  of  water  together,  adding  a  , 
little  sugar  and  lemon-peel  to  it,  nutmeg  if  approved  of; 
but  spices  are  rarely  desirable  for  invalids.  Grate  a  cup 
of  bread  crumbs ;  and  when  the  wine  and  water  boil, 
pour  in  the  crumbs ;  stir  them  together,  and  boil  very 
quickly  until  the  mixture  thickens  ;  take  it  off  the  fire  and 
pour  it  into  a  basin. 

Bread  panadas  may  be  flavored  with  the  juice  of  fruits, 
such  as  lemon  and  orange  syrup,  etc.  Remember  always 
that  the  ingredients  must  be  boiled  together,  or  they  will 
not  form  into  a  jelly. 

PUDDINGS  FOR  INVALIDS. 

Light  flour  Pudding. — Take  a  spoonful  of  fine  flour, 
boil  a  teacupful  of  milk  and  mix  the  flour  very  smoothly 
with  it.  Let  it  stand  till  cold,  occasionally  stirring  it,  to 
prevent  the  flour  from  settling  at  the  bottom.  When  cold, 
add  to  it  the  yolk  of  an  egg,  well  beaten,  with  a  small 
quantity  of  salt ;  tie  it  up  very  securely  in  a  buttered 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOX.  475 

teacup  or  small  pudding  basin  ;  plunge  it  into  a  saucepan 
of  boiling  water,  and  let  it  boil  fast  for  half  an  hour.  It 
should  be  just  firm  enough  to  stand  when  turned  out  of 
the  basin. 

Bread  Puddings. — Pour  a  cup  of  boiling  milk  on  two 
table-spoonfuls  of  bread  crumbs  ;  when  cold  add  the  yolk 
of  a  beaten  egg  to  it,  and  boil  in  a  basin  for  a  quarter  of 
an  hour  or  twenty  minutes.  Cinnamon  boiled  in  the 
milk,  or  a  bruised  bitter  almond,  together  with  lemon- 
peel,  may  be  employed  as  flavoring  ingredients. 

Arrow-root  Pudding  is  made  by  mixing  a  table-spoon- 
ful of  it  in  cold  milk,  then  pouring  it  into  boiling  milk. 
It  must  then  be  allowed  to  cool,  when  the  yolk  (well 
beaten)  of  an  egg  must  be  added,  and  the  pudding  must 
be  put  into  a  basin  and  boiled  for  ten  minutes.     All  pud- 
dings for  invalids,  having  eggs  in  them,  should  be  boiled 
•An  preference  to  being  baked.     Baking  is  supposed  to 
'render  eggs  less  easy  of  digestion  than  boiling. 

WEAVING. 

. 

Woven  cloth  is  always  composed  of  two  sets  of  threads, 
or,  as  the  weavers  call  them,  yarn,  crossing  each  other  at 
right  angles.  One  set  extends  the  whole  length  of  the 
web  or  piece  of  cloth,  and  is  called  the  warp  ;  the  other 
set  runs  from  side  to  side  of  the  web,  or  across  the  cloth, 
and  is  called  the  woof  or  weft ;  the  latter  is  not  a  succes- 
sion of  different  threads,  but  one  continued  thread  through 
the  whole  piece  of  cloth  ;  it  passes  alternately  under  and 
over  each  thread  of  the  warp,  until  it  arrives  at  the  out- 
side one,  or  edge  of  the  web  ;  it  then  passes  round  the 
edge,  and  returns  back  over  and  under  each  warp  thread 
as  before,  but  so  that  it  now  goes  under  those  threads 
which  it  went  over  before,  thus  firmly  knitting  together 
the  woven  tissue.  The  outside  yarn  of  the  warp,  round 
which  the  weft  doubles,  is  called  the  selvage  (self-edge,) 


476  THE 

and  cannot    be  unravelled  without  breaking  the   weft. 
This  structure  of  cloth  is  easily  seen,  by  examining  a 

t  piece  of  linen  or  calico  with  a  magnifying 
grass,  (see  cut,  A,)  and  may  be  observed  on  a 
large  scale  in  matting,  which  is  woven  of  coarse 
grass,  or  similar  substances. 

Indeed,  some  kind  of  matting  made  of  the  fibrous  parts 
of  plants,  as  the  stalk,  such  as  the  rushes  and  straws,  was 
probably  the  first  kind  of  cloth  invented  by  rude  and  un- 
civilized nations  ;  and  the  art  of  spinning  threads  from 
fine  fibres  was  probably  a  refinement  .upon  this,  which 
led  to  the  weaving  of  what  we,  at  the  pressent  time,  term 
cloth.  Some  nations  are  still  ignorant  of  the  art  of  weav- 
ing ;  for  the  cloth  made  in  Otaheite,  where  it  was  first 
discovered  by  Captain  Cook,  was  made  by  merely  ce- 
menting vegetable  fibres  together,  and  was  very  analo- 
gous to  our  paper  ;  and  the  Tartars  make  cloth  by 
,ly  felting  wool. 

When  the  process  of  spinning  threads  from  the  delicate 
and  short  fibres  which  animals  afford  was  discovered,  the 
weaver  was  furnished  with  a  material  superior  to  any 
fibres  in  their  simple  state,  and  the  foundation  was  laid 
of  the  art  of  producing  woven  cloth.  When,  and  by 
whom,  that  discovery  was  made  is  not  known  ;  but  it  ap- 
pears to  have  happened  early  in  the  history  of  mankind. 
The  cultivation  of  flax  was  practiced  by  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  and  it  is  recorded  that  Pharaoh  was  arrayed 
in  vestments  of  fine  linen.  The  Hindoos  have  made  cot- 
ton cloth  from  time  immemorial,  and  the  Hebrews  were 
also  in  possession  of  the  arts  of  weaving,  dyeing,  and  em- 
bpoidery. 

Weaving  was  introduced  into  Britain  by  the  Romans 
along  with  other  arts  of  civilization  ;  but,  from  various 
causes,  so  little  did  our  British  ancestors  profit  by  the  ex- 
ample which  had  been  thus  set,  that  for  several  ages  a 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK. 


477 


great  part  of  their  wool  was  exported  to  the  Low  Coun- 
tries where  weaving  had  been  successfully  practiced,  and 
brouo-ht.back  in  the  form  of  cloth.  At  so  late  a  perio- 
as  133l!  this  art  was  so  little  understood  in  England,  that 
the  arrival  of  two  weavers  from  Brabant  is  recorded  in 
the  chronicles,  among  the  important  events  of  that  time. 
But  it  was  the  religious  persecution  under  the  Duke  of 
Alva  and  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nants,  that  oc- 
casioned a  great  number  of  Flemish  weavers  to  take  re- 
fuge  and  settle  in  this  country. 

Weaving  is  performed  by  the  aid  of  a  machine  called 
a  loom,  and  the  simplest  kind,  or  common  looms,  vary 
but  little  as  to  their  general  structure,  whatever  may  be 
the  nature  of  the  fabric  they  are  intended  to  make  ;  the 
chief  difference  in  those  for  weaving  silk  or  wool,  consist- 
ing in  the  greater  stability  and  strength  of  the  latter,  on 
account  of  the  greater  coarseness  and  elasticity  of  the 
fibres  and  the  thickness  of  the  cloth  woven.  Great  im- 


478  .  /        THE  FARMER'S  AND 

provements  have  been  made  of  late  in  looms,  particularly 
in  weaving  cottons,  muslins,  and  silks  ;  nevertheless,  the 
old-fashioned  common  loom  is  still  employed,  particularly 
in  Spitalfields  and  other  places,  for  weaving  plain  silks. 
The  first  operation  in  weaving  is  to  extend  the  warp 
yarn  in  parallel  lines.  This  is  effected  by  means  of  a 
contrivance  called  a  warp-mill;  and  it  is  then  rolled 
carefully  round  a  thick  roller  in  the  loom,  A,  called  the 
warp-learn,  having  a  weight,  c,  suspended  from  it  to  keep 
the  warp  stretched.  From  this  the  warp,  M  M,  forming 
the  length  of  the  piece,  is  stretched  to  another  roller  in 
the  loom,  called  the  cloth-beam,  R,  before  the  cloth  is 
wound  upon  it  when  completed.  Every  thread  of  the 
warp  between  the  two  beams  passes  through  loops  in  two 
sets  of  vertical  threads,  stretched  in  frames  called  kiddles, 
d  d  and  ee,  which  are  connected  by  strings  at  bottom  with 
two  treadles,  D  and  E,  to  be  pressed  up  and  down  by  the^ 
weaver's  feet.  The  use  of  these  treadles  is  to  separate 
the  threads  of  the  warp,  by  raising  and  depressing  each 
thread  alternately,  and  thus  making  way  for  the  weft  to 
pass  through  ;  the  two  treadles  being  so  united  by  a  rope 
and  pulley,  that  the  depression  of  one  must  cause  the  rais- 
ing of  the  other.  The  weft  is  driven  from  one  side  to  the 
other  through  this  space,  called  the  shed,  by  means  of  a 
shuttle  thrown  from  the  hand.  The  shuttle  is  a  small 


box  pointed  at  both  ends,  and  contains  a  small  bobbin  of 
cane,  called  the  quill,  having  the  weft  wound  on,  and 
which  runs  on  as  the  shuttle  is  thrown.  No  sooner  is  a 
thread  of  weft  thrown  by  the  motion  of  the  shuttle,  than  it 
is  driven  up  close  to  the  last  thread  of  weft  by  the  blow 
of  a  comb-like  apparatus,  called  a  batten,  L,  which  con- 


THE  EMIGRANT'S  HAND-BOOK.  479 

sists  of  a  long*  narrow  frame,  with  a  number  of  slit  pieces 
of  reed,  cane,  or  wires,  arranged  perpendicularly,  and 
so  close  that  every  thread  of  the  weft  passes  through  two 
of  them  :  this  batten  is  suspended  in  a  horizontal  position 
by  two  vertical  laths,  which  are  movable,  like  a  pendu- 
lum, from  a  centre  position  at  the  top  of  the  loom,  F.  The 
weaver  placed  on  the  seat,  N,  lays  hold  of  this  batten, 
and  by  pulling  it  toward  him  forcibly,  he  strikes  the  last 
thrown  thread  of  weft  up  to  the  cloth  that  is  forming. 
When  a  certain  number  of  threads  of  the  weft  are  thus 
thrown  by  the  shuttle,  and  brought  up  close  by  the  batten 
and  reed,  so  much  cloth  is  made,  and  the  cloth-beam  is  turn- 
ed round  to  wind  it  up  ;  this  beam  is  prevented  from  going 
back  by  a  ratchet  wheel  and  click  fixed  on  the  end.  Thus 
the  operation  in  working  the  loom  for  weaving  plain  cloth, 
consists  of  three  simple  movements  :  First.  Opening  tne 
thread,  or  separating  the  threads  of  the  warp  alternately 
to  admit  the  shuttle,  which  is  effected  by  pressing  the 
treadles  that  move  the  heddles.  Second.  Throwing  the 
shuttle  by  hand  to  form  the  weft.  Third.  Pulling  the 
batten  and  reed  to  strike  home  the  weft,  and  again  push- 
ing it  back  to  the  heddles. 

The  fineness,  or  rather  the  closeness  of  texture  in 
cloth,  depends  upon  the  number  of  laths  or  dents  which 
the  reed  contains  within  a  given  space,  and  which,  of 
course,  determine  the  number  of  threads  of  warp  in  the 
same  space.  The  yarn  of  the  weft  is  always  somewhat 
finer  than  that  of  the  warp,  and  the  number  of  shoots  of 
it  in  a  given  space  must  consequently  always  exceed  the 
number  of  threads  of  warp  in  a  similar  space  ;  that  is  to 
say,  a  square  inch  of  cloth  must  contain  a  greater  number 
of  threads  of  weft  than  of  warp. 

The  perfection  of  weaving  depends  very  much  upon 
stretching  the  warp  exactly  parallel,  and  likewise  on  roll- 
ing them  with  great  regularity  upon  the  yarn-beam.  It 


480  THE    FARMEP'S    AND 

is  necessary,  also,  that  the  weaver  should -exert  the  same 
force  in  every  stroke  of  the  reed  frame,  in  order  to  make 
every  part  of  the  cloth  equally  compact. 

Previous  to  warping,  the  yarn  must  be  prepared  by 
sizing  and  starching,  called  dressing,  in  order  to  cement 
all  the  loose  fibres,  and  thus  render  it  smooth,  firm,  and 
strong ;  and  the  weaver  suspends  his  operation,  from 
time  to  time,  in  order  to  apply  the  dressing  to  his  warp. 
The  weft  of  muslins  and  thin  cotton  goods  is  generally 
woven  into  the  cloth  in  a  wet  state,  by  which  the  fibres 
of  the  cotton  are  rendered  smooth  and  parallel,  the  effect 
of  which  is  similar  to  dressing  the  warp.  The  operations 
of  hand-loom  weaving  are  simple  and  soon  learned,  but 
it  requires  much  practice  to  perform  these  with  dexterity. 


THE   END. 


INDEX. 


PAGE. 

Abortion,  or  slinking  the  calf 177 

Accidents 268 

Act  to  grant  preemption  rights 352 

Adhesive  plaster 264 

Admeasurement  of  cattle,  table  for. .  406 
Adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitu- 
tion  343 

Adults,  diarhoea  in 240 

Affidavits    required    of   preemption 

claimants 355 

Aged  persons,  cure  for  cough  in 259 

Age  of  neat  cattle,  how  to  know  the  200 

Ague  and  Fever 234 

Aloetic  pills 257 


11:111 


und. 


257 


America,  discovery  of.  ............  341 

A  mount  of  Indian  corn  sugar  from 

the  acre  ......................  371 

Animal  food,  nutritive  matter  in  ----   408 

Animals,  fattening  ..........  ..   391-409 

raising  domestic  ..........     43 

selection  of  breed  ........     44 

feeding  of  ...............     44 

humanit    to  .............     45 


umanity  to  ............. 

al  remedy  for  hydrophobia  404 


An  intern 

Anti-bilious  medicine 262 


Application  of  leeches 251 

Apricot,  the 296 

Arm,  fractures  of  the 279 

Arrow  root  pudding 475 

Articles  necessary  for  a  new  settler, 

and  their  prices 16 

Auger  with  cutters 90 

Average  price  of  clearing  land 17 


Beef,  curing  for  the  Engliih  market.  328 


potted . 


451 

cutting  up 414 

choice  of. 469 

Belly,  wounds  of  the 278 

Beer,  spruce 165 

minute 165 

root 261 


Bilious  fever  ......................   236 

colic  ......................  242 

Birds  among  fruit  trees  ............   290 

128 
128 


Biscuit,  family 
quick 


Biscuits,  butter 142 

Bite  of  a  mad  dog,  remedy  for 403 

Bites  of  mad  dogs,  rattlesnakes,  &c.  276 

Black  dye 167 

foot 177 

tongue 225 

gum  in  plum  trees 297 

salts,  how  to  make 359 

Blain 179 

Blanc  mange,  good  common 145 

richer 146 


Blast,  or  blown. 
Bleeding  cattle. 


173 


Back  and  front  view  of  shanty 52 

Bacon,  choice  of. 471 

Baking 127 

Balm 

Bars  and  gates 35 

Barns,  economy  of  feeding  in ^45 

Barns 

Bark  of  the  pine,  bread  from. . 

Beans  and  poik 149|  Brain,  concussion  of  the. .. 

Beeftea « 267  Bread,  how  to  make.. 

21 


at  the  nose 

piles 248 

to  stop 271 

directions  for 281 

Blind  staggers  in  hogs 218 

piles 248 

Blown,  hoove  or  hoven It 

or  blast 208 

Blood,  in  iheep 205 

Blue  dye 168 

grass  on  bank  fence 100 

grass r 397 

Boiling  cornstalks  for  sugar 310 

Boiler  for  cornstalks 367 

Borer  in  quince  trees 305 

Boring  posts,  machine  for 89 

...  Bots  in  horses 323 

101  [  Bowels,  inflammation  of. 241 

444J  in  cattle 189 

"  123  I 


482 


INDEX. 


PAGE. 

Bread  made  of  wood 128 

improved  corn . 137 

made  from  mixtures  of  various 

grain 410 

from  the  bark  of  the  pine 444 

panada.. 474 

pudding 475 

Breaking  up  land 28 

and  grinding  madder 326 

prairie 399 

Breeding  swine,  care  of. 219 

Breed  of  swine 220 

Breeds  of  animals,  selecting 44 

Brick  houses,  unburnt 72 

Brickbat  cheese 429 

British  oil 393 

British  money  in  Canada 396 

Broomcorn 377 

method  of  planting 377 

cultivation  of 378 

harvesting 378 

scraping 378 

machine  for  scraping. . .  379 

product  of 380 

value  of  a  crop  of. 380 

quantity  of 380 

Brooms,  manufacture  of. 380 

Brush  and  log  heaps 18 

Buckwheat  cakes 137 

Building  a  house 26 

stables....- 29 

a  pise  house 77 

mud  walls,  mode  of. 85 

Burgundy  pitch,  plaster,  compound.  263 

compression  of  the. 271 

Burning  stumps 21 

Burns  and  scalds 252 

extensive 253 

remedies  for 281 

Business  forms  at  land  offices 355 

Butter  making  in  Orange  County. . .   107 

working  and  salting 108 

Vermont 109 

making,  statement  by  Jacob 

T.  Lansing 110 

making,  statement  by  William 

Weovifield 112 

making,  statement  by  Charles 

Lyon 112 

biscuits 140 

cake 144 

to  preserve  .......,......*•.  452 

Buying  too  much  land.. 14 


Cablmges,  to  preserve la" 

Cakes,  remarks  on 13S 

buckwheat 14C 

very  good  small  rich  Irish-.  140 
fine  almond ...    14 


Cake,   cop 142 

sponge 144 

batter 145 

pound 147 

rich  wedding 148 

Washington 162 

Calf's  feet  blane  mange 145 

Calf,  abortion,  or  slinking  of  the 177 

Cahing 180 

Calves,  weaning  and  rearing 181 

their  diseases 184 

eostiveness   in 185 

canker  in 186 

to  prevent  them  from  sucking  186 

scours  in 186 

eold  in.... 187 

catarrh  in 187 

cough  in ••  187 

amornile 438 

Camphorated  soap  liniment 393 

"anada,  British  money  in 396 

West,  cost  of  clearing  ten 

acres  in 21 

Candles,  cheap 153 

Canker  in  calves 186 

Caraway 437 

Care  of  milk  before  churning... ...  108 

of  breeding  swine f 219 

in  the  planting  of  trees 291 

Carpets,  shaking 396 

Carrots 42 

Castile  Soap,  to  make  Windsor  and.  169 

Casting,  rough 420 

Castor  oil  clyster 257 

Catarrh  in  calves 187 

Cattle  choking 187 

Cattle,  lice  on.... .: 190 

red  water  in . . . .  • 192 

cow  pox  in 188 

hoove,  hoven,  or  blown,  in. .   188 
inflammation  of  the  bowels  in  189 

mad  itch  in 191 

the  mange  in 191 

red  water  in 192 

scooring-rot,  or  rot. .........  194 

staggers   in 195 

trembles  in 195 


yellows  in 197 

horn  ail  in 198 

murrain  in 200 

how  to  ascertain  the  age  of.  200 

physicking 202 

pulse  of 204 

how  to  measure. 405 

table  for  admeasurement  of.  406 
sheep,  horses,  swine,  &c.,  dis- 
eases of. '..  171 

Catsup,  tomato 159 

Caution  in  purchasing  Land 9 

Cements 419 

Charcoal  poultice 258 

Cheap  farm-house 61 


.f-'DEX. 


483 


PAGE 

Cheap  farm-house,  description  of. . .     62 

wood  mill 91 

rail  fence 93 

candles 153 

manner  to  cure  haras 162 

paint 381 

Chedder  cheese 429 

Chemical  tests  tor  examining  water.  443 

Cherry  trees,  nuisance  around 295 

Cheshire  cheese 427 

Cheese,  reports  on. 114 

statement  of  H.  P.  &  G.  Al- 
len   114 

statement  of  Daniel  Marvin  115 
Phineas  Hardy  116 

making 116 

the  emigrant's 117 

new  method  of  making. .. .   117 

to  make  sage 118 

varieties  of , .  427 

Cheshire..., 427 

Gloucester 427 

Double  Gloucester 427 

"Stilton 45J8 

Cottenham, 428 

sage 428 

chedder 429 

brickbat 429 

Dunlop 429 

new 430 

skim-milk 430 

Parmesan 431 

Dutch 432 

Swiss 432 

Grayene 432 

Schabziegar 433 

Westphalia 433 

cream 434 

Chest,  wounds  of  the 277 

Chimney,  clay 27 

China,   mending 425 

Choice  of  beef. 469 

veal 470 

mutton 470 

lamb 470 

pork 471 

bacon 471 

venison '. 471 

domestic  fowls 471 

geese 471 

ducks 472 

pigeons 472 

hares  and  rabbits 472 

partridges 472 

woodcocks  and  snipes 472 

turbot 472 

cod 472 

salmon 472 

mackerel 473 

herring 473 

fresh-water  fish 473 

lobsters 473 


PAOB. 

Choice  of  crabs  and  crayfish 473 

prawns  and  shrimps 473 

oysters 473 

Choking  cattle 187 

Cholagogue,  Indian 235 

Chronic  rheumatism 245 

cough,  remedy  for ,  259 

Churches,  convenience  to — 11 

Churning  machine 108 

care  of  milk  before 108 

Claimants,  preemption 355 

Clarifying  cornstalk  sugar 369 

Clay  chimney 27 

Cleaning  the  ground  for  hops 337 

Clearing  land,  average  price  of. ..    .     17 

land,  directions  for -     17 

ten  acres  in  Canada  West, 

cost  of 21 

Cloth,  directions  for  fulled 166 

Clyster,  castor  oil....f.., 257 

Cod,  choice  of. 473 

Codfish  salted 156 

Cooking  string  beans 161 

green  peas 161 

Cold  in  calves 187 

and  sedative  poultice 250 

Colic 242 

in  horses,  cure  of 222 

Colocynth  pills,  compound 256 

Coloring,  madder  red -  ..,,..  169 

forwalls 421 

Collar-bone,  fractures  of  the. 279 

Common  paste  for  pies 130 

gingerbread  138 

headach...: 237 

poultice 262 

Compound  aloetic  pills 257 

colocynth  pills 256 

soap  liniment 263 

burgundy  pitch  plaster. .  263 

Composition,  preservative '  382 

Compression  of  the  brain 271 

Concussion  of  the  brain 270 

ongress 347 

Constitution   of  the  United   States, 

glance  at  the 339 

Constitution,  adoption  of  the 343 

powers  granted  in  the.  345 

Contused  wounds 275 

Contusions 269 

Conveniences  to  churches,   schools, 


Cordial,  Godfrey's 264 

Joriander 437 

Corn,  Indian 41 

cake... 12S 

bread,  improved* 140 

green,  for  use  in  winter 160     ' 

meal 166 

measuring 389 

Cornstalk  sugar 365 

clarifying 369 


484 


1JHDEX, 


Cornstalk  sugar  boiler, 
mill.., 


PAGK. 

367 
368 

straining 369 

boiling 370 

crystallization  .....  371 
amount     from     the 

acre 371 

expense  of  making.  372 
%>  remarks  concerning  373 

Vto  make 375 

Costiveness  in^jfrlves 185 

Cost  of  a  prairie  farm 402 

of  clearing* ten  acres  in  Canada 

West 21 

of  farming  utensils 24 

of  a  well 32 

of  fencing,  estimate  of. 88 

Cottage,  plan  for  a  farm 56 

perspective  view  of. 57 

ground  plan  of 58 

plan  of  second  floor  of... .     59 

Cottages,  whitewashing ...*». 100 

Cottenham  cheese 428 

Cough  in  calves 187 

mixture,  Dr.  Ratcliffe's 258 

medicine,  Dr.  Munro's 258 

simple  remedy  for 259 

chronic,  remedy  for 259 

in  aged  persons 25§ 

Counsel,  keep  your  own 29 

Cows,  milking- 105 

treating  them  with  gentleness  105 

Cow  Pox 188 

Crabs  and  cray  fish,  choice  of. 473 

Cramp  in  the  stomach 244 

Cream  cheese. 434 

Credit,  custom  of  Landholders  in  re- 
gard to 15 

Crops,  Cultivation  of. 39 

preservation  of. 45 

Crop  of  broomcorn,  value  of. 380 

of  madder,  statement  of. 316 

Croup 243 

Crullers 142 

Crust,  flead 133 

superior  suet 134 

Crystallization  of  cornstalk  sugar. .  371 

Cubic  measures,  table  of 388 

Cucumbers,  to  pickle 151 

Cultivation  of  crops' 39 

of  madder 315 

of  broomcorn 378 

Curculio,  the ! 

Cure  of  colic  in  horses 222 

for  sprains  in  horses 225 

Cures  for  hydrophobia 403 

Curing  hams,  a  cheap  manner 162 

Virginia  mode 163 

Curing  provisions  for  English  market  323 
sheep  skins  with  wool  on  •  •  390 

Westphalia  hams 413 

Currant  jelly 468 


riff. 

Custard , 146 

Custom  of  Landholders  in  regard  to 

credit ' 15 

Cutting  hay... 29 

glass 426 

up  meat 413 

beef 414 

mutton 417 

lamb 418 

veal 419 

pork 419 


Dairy 105 

utensils 108 

Damsons  for  pies,  preserving 467 

Debility  in  females,  tonic  for 261 

Decoction  of  sarsaparilla 265 

the  woods 266 

Deepening  soil  by  ploughing 41 

Description  of  a  cheap  farm-house. .     62 
Design  for  a  farm-houss  and  out- 
buildings.      66 

Destruction  of  weeds 390 

Diarrhoea  in  calves 184 

in  adults 240 

Difference  in  milkers 105 

Different  grains,  quantity  of  meal  in  407 

Digging  and  harvesting  madder 319 

Directions  for  clearing  land 17 

the  first  year 25 

fulled  cloth 166 

bleeding 281 

Discovery  of  America 341 

Diseased  peach  trees,  to  restore 311 

Diseases  of  cattle 171 

calves 184 

sheep 205 

swine 216 

horses..... 222 

Distemper,  painting  in 422 

Ditch,  post  and  embankment 90 

Ditches 36 

Ditching  and  fencing,  mode  of. 85 

Docking  horses 228 

Domestic  economy,  items  of. 394 

animals,  raising 43 

Double  Gloucester  cheese 427 

Dough  for  bread,  making  the 326 

Dough-nuts 143 

Dover's  powder 263 

Draining  and  manuring 35 

Draining,  experiment  in 37 

Dropsy  in  sheep 207 

Dry  wood,  heat  from 394 

Drying  madder 319 

Ducks,  choice  of. 472 

Dunlop  cheese 432 

Dutch  cheese 432 

Dye,  black 167 

green 168 


INDEX. 


485 


PAGE 

Dye,  blue 168 

slate  color 169 

Dyers'  madder,  cultivation  of. 315 


Ear,  wounds  of- 277 

Economy  of  feeding  in  barns 4i 

Economy,  domestic 3Q4 

Eggs,  to  preserve 45$ 

an  article  of  export 38* 

Elevation  of  farm-house 67 

farmery 7C 

Elm  bark  roof 55 

Embankment,  post  and  ditch 9C 

Embrocation  for  sprains 251 

Emigrant  cheese 117 

End  view  of  iron  mill 02 

English  market,  curing  provisions  for  323 
Errors  in  the  treatment  of  horses ....  227 

Estimate  of  the  cost  of  fencing 88 

Europe,  freight  to 384 

Examining  water * 443 

Expense  of  making  corn  sugar 372 

Experiment  in  draining 37 

Export,  eggs  an  article  of. 385 

Eye  waters 256 


Family  biscuit 128 

Farm,  cost  of  a  prairie 402 

buildings 49 

Farmer,  value  of  swine  to  the 383 

Farmery,  elevation  of 70 

plan  of 71 

Farming  on  prairies 23 

utensils,  cost  of. 24 

Farm-house,  a  cheap 61 

perspective   view   of  a 

prairie 93 

description  of  a  cheap.     62 
ground  plan  of  a  pruirie    64 

design  for  a 66 

elevation  of 67 

ground  plan  of  a 68 

second  floor  of 68 

Fattening  animals 391-409 

Federal  Constitution,  adoption  of.  . .  343 

Feeding  animals 44 

in  barns,  economy  of. 45 

sheep,  regularity  in 214 

Females,  tonic  for  debility  in 261 

Fence  (plate) 90 

Fence,  rail 98 

blue  grass  on  bank 100 

Fences,  timber  for 34 

Fences 49 

Fencing  land 20 

Fencing  and  ditching,  mode  of. 8 

estimate  of  the  cost  of 8 

improved  mode  of 96 


PAM. 

Fencing  the  prairies 94 

Fevers 333 

Fever,   intermittent,    or    fever    and 

ague 234 

Fever,  simple 235 

bilious 236 

scarlet 237 

Fields,  shape  and  size  of. 34 

Figs,  tomato 158 

First  year,  directions  for 35 

Flies,  to  preserve  hams  from 164 

Film  in  the  eye  of  a  beasf. 226 


Filtering  water ,  %t». 439 

Fish,  to  preserve 445 

Flour  pudding <*» .  .»...*. 474 

Flour,  to  test  the  purity  of 124 

Fomentation  of  marsh  mallows 249 

poppies 246 

Foreign  bodies  in  the  throat 280 

coins,  value  in  United  States  394 

forest  life,  romance  of. 19 

terras  for  business  at  land  offices. . .  355 

founder  in  horses 224 

fractures 278 

of  the  collar  bone.. **....   279 

arm 279 

ribs 280 

<Vame  cottage,  plan  for  a 56 

•"reight  to  Europe 384 

''resh  water  fish,  choice  of.  ...*....  473 

Fried  tomato 160 

Front  and  back  view  of  shanty 52 

view  of  iron  mill 92 

'ruit  pies * 133 

jellies 467 

pastes 464 

garden 285 

garden,  situation  of. 286 

garden,  swine  and  poultry  in. .  289 

stealing 286 

trees,  order  of  planting 287 

trees,  prices  of 285 

trees,  birds  among 290 

trees,  situated 290 

trees,  pruning 293 

trees,  mice  girdling 294 

trees,  slugs  among... 295 

keeping  winter 306 

preserving 454 

preserved    I  v    syrup    without  v 

heat 463 

Fuel 412 

Fulled  cloth,  directions  for 166 


langet,  or  downfall  of  the  udder.  ..   188 

Jargle  for  sore  throat 259 

3ates  and  bars 35 

Geese,  choice  of. 471 

Gelatine  brut  fin 450  | 

ingerbread,  common 141 


480 


INDEX. 


PAOK. 

Ginger,  tincture  of. 2154 

Girdling  trees 20 

Glance  nt  the  Constitution  of  the  Uni- 
ted States 339 

Glass,  cutting. .. 42f> 

Gloucester  cheese. 427 

Grains,  bread  made  from  a  mixture 

of. 410 

Grape  jelly ' 

Grass  seeds,  seeding  land  with 42 

blue,  on  bank  fence 100 

Grease  spots,  to  remove.  ..  . 394 

Green  corn  for  winter  use 100 

peas,  how  to  cook 101 

dye ...JJI. 168 

Grinding  madder . . .  .t .  v 321 

Ground,  clearing  for  hops 337 

plan  for  a  cottage,  t 58 

of  a  prairie  farm-house    64 

of  a  farm-house 68 

Growing  timber  on  the  prairie 307 

Gruyere  cheese 432 


Hams,  to  cure  Westphalia 413 

to  keep  in  summer 15' 

to  cure  in  a  cheap  manner.  . .  162 

Virginia  mode  of  curing 103 

to  preserve  from  flies 164 

Hard  yeast 125 

water  made  soft 1 54 

Hares  and  rabbits,  choice  of 472 

Harvesting  madder 319 

broomcorn 378 

Hay,  cutting 29 

Headache,  common.  .- 237 

'Healing  salve 

Health  fulness  of  location 10 

Heating  the  oven 127 

Heat  from  green  mid  dry  wood 394 

Heifers,  taming 106 

Hen  houses imi 

Herrings,  choice  of. 473 

Holes  bored 90 

Homminy,  to  make 157 

Hoose  in  calves 18' 

Hop  yeast 124 

Hops 335 

.    soil  for 335 

soil  for  manuring 335 

the  kind  of. 33t 

planting 336 

poling 337 

clearing  the  ground  for 337 

Horn  ail 198 

Horses,  diseases  of. 223 

cure  for  colic  in 222 

botsin 223 

founder  in 

yellow  water  in 

swellings  in 224 


fAO*. 

Horses,  stifle  in 225 

cure  for  spasms  in 225 

swine y  in 225 

ring-bone  in 225 

black  tongue  in 225 

film  in  the  eyes  of 225 

pole  evil  in 226 

scratches  in 227 

errors  in  the  treatment  of. . .  227 

(locking. 228 

purging 229 

House,  situation  of  to  plough  land. .  362 

building  a 26 

costofa 27 

log 54 

cheap  farm 61 

description  of  a  cheap  farm..     62 
perspective  view  of  a  prairie 

farm 63 

ground  plan  of  a  prairie  farm     64 

design  for  a  farm 66 

elevation  of  a  farm 67 

ground  plan  of  a  farm 68 

second  floor  of  a  farm 68 

building  a  pis6.. 77 

Houses,  pisC,  or  unburnt  brick 72 

hen 100 

ice 101 

Ifoven,  hoove,  or  blown 189 

How  to  ascertain  the  age  of  neat  cat- 
tle  200 

to  judge  of  the  quality  of  wild 

lands 12 

to  make  bread 123- 

Humanity  to  animals 45 

Hydrophobia  and  its  remedies 403 

internal  remedy  fer.  . .  404 


Ice-houses 191 

Teeing  for  cakes 137 

Illinois  wheat,  for  Liverpool 386 

Importance  of  manures 39 

milking  quickly 106 

Improved  mode  of  fencing 96 

corn  bread 137 

Incised  wounds 273 

Incombustible  wash 383 

Independence  of  the  States 343 

Indian  corn  and  potatoes 41 

corn  meal 129 

chalogogue 235 

corn  sugar 365 

Inflammatory  rheumatism 245 

sore  throat,  gargle  for  26!) 
Inflammation,  to  diminish  inordinate  248 

of  the  brain 236 

bowels 241 

Intermittent  Fever 234 

Internal  remedy  for  hydrophobia. . .  404 
Irreducible  ruptures 247 


INDEX. 


487 


Iron  mill,  end  view  of. .. 

front  view  of. 

Isinglass  blanc  mange... 

jelly • 

Itch 


Jam,   raspberry 

strawberry 

barberry; 

white  gooseberry. 

Jams 

Jaundice 

Jellies,  fruit 


grape . . 
currant. 


Keep  your  own  counsel. .. 
Kidney,  worms  in  Swine's. 


145 

267 
244 


467 
467 
467 
464 
242 
467 


217 


Labor-saving  soap 155 

Lamb,  cutting  up 418 

choice  of. 470 

Land,  how  to  judge  of  the  quality. .     12 

quality  of  prairie 13 

buying  too  much 14 

caution  in  purchasing 9 

average  price  of  clearing 17 

directions  for  clearing 17 

fencingthe 20 

breaking  up i 

proportion  of  wood 33 

seeding  with  grass  seeds 42 

directions  for  seeding 43 

public... 348 

offices,  forms  for  business  at. .  355 
Landholders,  custom  in  relation  to 

credit 15 

Lard  oil 330 

Leeches,  application  of 251 

Legal  value  of  Foreign  coins.. 394 

Lice  on  cattle 190 

Light  flour  pudding 474 

Lime  spots  on  clothes 394 

Liniment,  compound  soap '.   263 

camphorated  soap 393 

Linseed  poultice '. 250 

Liverpool,  Illinois  wheat  sent  to. . .  386 

Loaf  cake,  plain ] 37 

Lobster,  choice  of. 473 

Log  house 54 

shanty 17 

and  brush  heaps 18 

shanty 51 

front  and  back  view  of. .     52 

Lotion,  refrigerant 249 

sedative 250 


Lotion   for  scorbutic  ulcers, 
manufacture  of. . . . . 


M 


Machine  for  boring  posts 89 

scraping  broomcorn.. .  379 

churning 108 

Mackerel,  choice  of 473 

Madder,  cultivation  of. » .  315 

statement  of  a  crop  of....  316 
soil  and  preparation  for. ...  317 
preparing  lots  and  planting  317 

after  culture  of. 318 

the  second  jear 319 

third  year... 319 

digging  and  harvesting....   319 

washing  and  drying 319 

kiln  drying 320 

breaking  and  drying 321 

product  of. 321 

red,  to  color 169 

Mad  dog,  cure  for  the  bite  of  a 403 

itch 191 

Malt  poultice <ri 255 

Management  of  a  farm 33 

of  orchards 310 

Mange 191 

Mangers  for  sheep ., 213 

Manufacture  of  lard   oil 330 

brooms 380 

Manures,  importance  of 39 

Manuring  and  draining 35 

hops... 335 

Maple  sugar,  to  make 359 

Marjoram 436 

Market,  proximity  to 11 

Marmalades 464 

Marmalade,  quince 466 

orange 465 

Scotch  orange  chip, 466 

Meal  in  different  grains 407 

Measles 238 

in   swine 217 

Measure  cakes 138 

Measures  and  weights 123-233 

table  of  cubic 388 

Measuring  corn 389 

cattle 405 

Meat,  cutting  up „ 41 

to  preserve 446 

panadas 473 

Medical  doses,  scale  of. 233 

Mending  china 425 

Method  of  planting  broomcorn 377 

Mice  girdling  trees 294 

Mildew,  white 303 

Milkers,  difference  in 105 

Milking  cows 105 

importance  of  expertness  in  106  , 

Milk  paint 424 

care  of  before  churninf 108 


488 


INDEX. 


PAGE. 

Milk,  preservation  of. 454 

room 107 

Mill,  cheap  wood 91 

for  corn  sugar 368 

Mince  pies 135 

Mint 435 

Minute  beer 165 

Mixing  soils 41 

Mixtures  of  various  grains 410 

Mode  of  build  ing  mud-walls 85 

fencing  and  ditching 86 

fencing  improved 96 

Molasses,  to  improve 163 

Money,  val  ue  of  Foreign 394 

in  Canada 396 

Moss  on  tress : 311 

Mud  walls,  mode  of  building 85 

Muffins 143 

Mumps 240 

Murrain 200 

Mutton,  cutting  up 417 

choiceof.; 470 


Napoleon's  pectoral  pills 258 

Naturalization  and  preemption  laws  350 

Neat  cattle,  to  know  the  age  of 200 

Nervous  pills 262 

New  methoft  of  making  cheese 117 

Nipples,  sore 261 

Nuisances  around  cherry  trees 295 

Nutritive  matter  ki  vegetable  food. .  409 

animal  food....  408 


Oats 42 

Officers  of  the  United  States 347 

Oil,  British 393 

of  spike 393 

Ointment  for  rheumatism 260 

simple 263 

Onions,  pickling 150 

Opodeldoc 393 

Orange  County  butter 107 

marmalade 465 

Out-buildings,  design  for 66 

Oven,  heating  the 127 

Oysters,  pickling 451 

choice  of. 473 


Paint,  cheap ". 381 

milk 424 

Painting  in  distemper 422 

Panada 267 

meat 473 

bread 474 

Parasitic  plants 294 

Parmesan  cheese 431 


PAM. 

Parties,  political 349 

Partridges,  choice  of. 472 

Paste  for  pies 130 

good  light,  puff,  cream 131 132 

Pastry  icing  for. 140 

Peaches 308 

elevated  soil  for 304 

Peach  trees,  yellows  in 302 

restoring  diseased 311 

worm  in 300 

Pear  trees,  fire-blight  in 296 

Peas 42 

how  to  cook  green 161 

Pectoral  pills,  Napoleon's 258 

Pennyroyal  mint 436 

Peppermint 435 

Peppers,  pickling 15u 

Perspective  view  of  a  cottage 57 

of  a  prairie  farm- 
house       62 

Physicking  cattle 175-202 

Pickles,  tomato 160 

Pickling 150 

onions 150 

peppers 151 

cabbage 151 

cucumbers 151 

salmon 450 

oysters 451 

Pies,  to  preserve  damsons  for 467 

suet,  crust  for 133 

chicken,  pudding,  fruit-.-.  134  135 

mince 136 

pumpkin 138 

Pigeons,  choice  of. 472 

Piles,  blind 248 

bleeding 248 

Pill,  nervous 262 

aloetic 257 

compound  aloetic 257 

colocynth 256 

for  rheumatism 260 

Pine,  bread  from  the  bark  of 444 

Pise  unburnt  brick  houses 72 

making 74 

house,  building  a 77 

houses 80 

Plain  loaf  cake 137 

Plan  for  a  farm  cottage 56 

of  a  second  floor  of  cottage....     59 
of  farmery,  house,  grounds,  &c.    71 

Planting  trees,  order  of 287 

care  in 291 

hops 337 

madder 317 

Plants,  parasitic 294 

Plaster,  adhesive 264 

compound  burgundy  pitch. .  263 

strengthening 262 

Pleurisy , 241 

Ploughing,  deepening  soil  by 41 

Plough,  views  of 90 


INDEX. 


489 


PAGE. 

Plum  trees,  blac*  gum  in 297 

Poisoned  wounds 276 

Poling  hops 337 

Political  parties 349 

Poll  evil 226 

Poppies,  fomentation  of. 249 

syrup  of. 264 

Pork  and  beans 149 

cured  for  the  English  market. .  324 

price  of. 383 

cutting  up 418 

choice  of 471 

Portable  soup.... 447 

Postage,  rates  of. 396 

Post  boring  machine 92 

Posts,  machine  for  boring 89 

ditch  and  embankment ....     90 

Potatoes 41 

Potatoe  yeast 164 

starch 163 

Potted  beef. 451 

Poultices,  common 262 

cold  and  sedative 250 

to  hasten  suppuration....  250 

for  ulcers 254 

linseed 250 

malt 255 

strong  beer 255 

yeast < 

charcoal 255 

Pound  cake 145 

Powder,  Dover's « 


purgative.. 
Seidlitz.... 


Powers  granted  in  the  Constitution..  345 
Prairie  farm-house,  perspective  view 

of 

ground  plan  of. .     64 

Prairie  farming 23 

land,  quality  of. 13 

breaking r~~ 

farm,  costofa 402 

gi»\v:ng  timber  on  the 307 

Prawns  and  shrimps,  choice  of.. . 473 

Preemption  and  naturalization  laws  350 

rights 351 

act  to  grant 352 

claimants,  affidavit    re- 
quired of. 355 

Preparation  of  soil  for  madder 317 

Preparing  souse 156 

green  corn  for  winter  use.  160 

Preservation  of  crops 45 

of  milk 

composition 

Preserving  bread  moist 163 

butter 452 

cabbages 157 

eggs 452 

fish 445 

fruits  and  vegetables   by 
means  of  syrup 459 


PAG  It. 

Preserving  hams  from  flies 164 

meat 446 

roots,  fruits  and  vegeta- 
bles   454 

Preventing  calves  from  sucking 186 

smut  in  wheat 387 

Price  of  clearing  land 17 

Price  of  fruit  trees 285 

pork 383 

wheat  in  Europe 385 

Product  of  broomcorn 380 

madder 321 

Proportion  of  woodland 33 

Prospects  of  sheep  raising  in  the  west  215 
Provisions  cured  for  the  English  mar- 
ket   323 

Proximity  to  market • 11 

Pruning  trees i.. 293 

Public  lands 348 

Pudding,  light  flout 474 

bread 475 

arrow  root 475 

.   for  invalides 474 

Puffpaste 131 

Pulse  of  cattle 202 

Pumpkin  pies 136 

Punctured  wounds 274 

Purchasing  land 9 

Purgative  powder 258 

Purging  clyster 257 

horses 229 

Purifying  water 437 

Purity  of  flour 124 

Putrid  sore  throat,  gargle  for 260 

Q 

Quality  of  wild  land 12 

prairie  land 13 

Quantity  01  broomcorn 380 

nutritive  matter  in  ani- 
mal food 408 

nutritive  matter  in  vege- 
table food 409 

meal  in  different  grains.  407 

Quick  biscuit 128 

Quickness  in  milking 106 

Quince  trees,  borer  in 305 

marmalade .,-  460 


Rabbits,  choice  of. 472 

Rail  fence 93 

cheap 98 

Rails   sharpened 90 

Raising  corn  for  sugar 364 

domestic  animals 43 

Raspberry  jam 466 

Rates  of  postage 306 

Raw   tomato 160 

Rearing  calves 181 

* 


490 


INDEX. 


PAGE. 

Reducible  ruptures 246 

Red  water  in  cattle 192 

sheep 205 

Refrigerant  lotion 249 

Regularity  in  feeding  sheep 214 

Remedy  for  hydrophobia 404 

Removing  grease-spots 394 

Reports  on  cheese 113 

Restoring  diseased  peach  trees 311 

Revolutionary  war 343 

Rheumatism,  inflammatory 245 

chronic 245 

pills  for 260 

ointment  for 260 

Rhubarb 437 

Ribs,  fractures  of  the 280 

Rich  dough-outs 141 

wedding  cake 147 

Rice 


166 

Rights  of  preemption 352 

Ringbone 225 

Ringworm 244 

Rolls 144 

Romance  of  forest  life 19 

Roof,  elm  bark 55 

Root  beer 261 

Rot  in  cattle 194 

sheep 206 

Roving  habits  of  sheep ". 211 

Rough  casting 420 

Ruptures 246 

reducible 246 

irreducible 247 

Ruta  Baga 42 


Saffron 436 

Sage 434 

cheese 118428 

Salmon,  choice  of. 472 

to  pickle 450 

'  Salted  codfish  156 

Salt  for  swine 220 

Salting  and  working  butter 108 

"Salt  rheum 244 

<  Salts,  to  make  black 359 

«  Salve,  healing 262 

Sarsaparilla,  decoction  of 265 

Sauce-apple,  pudding,tomato,148 149160 

Sausages 165 

Scab  in  sheep : 209 

I  Scalds  and  burns 252  281 

extensive 253 

I  Scale  of  medical  doses 233 

FScaln,  wounds  of  the 277 

Scarlet  fever 237 

Schabziegar  cheese 433 

PSchools,  convenience  to 11 

PScooring  rot 194 

Scorbutic  ulcers,  poultice  for 254 

Scotch  orange-chip  marmalade 466 


Scours  in  calves 186 

Scraper,  views  of . . . . ' 91 

Scraping  broomcorn 378 

machine  for 379 

Scratches  in  horses 227 

Scrofula,  cure  for 262 

Second  floor  of  a  cottage,  plan  of. .     59 

farm-house 68 

Sedative  lotion 250 

Seeding  land  with  grass  seed 42 

directions  for 43 

Seidlitz  powders 268 

Selection  of  breeds  of  animals 44 

Setons,  mode  of  inserting 176 

Setting  the  sponge 126 

Settlement  of  the  United  States 342 

Shaking  carpets 394 

Shanty 51 

log 17 

front  and  back  view  of. 52 

Shape  of  fields 34 

Sharpened  rails 90 

Sheep,  diseases  of. 171,  205 

red  water   in 205 

blood  in 205 

rot   in 206 

dropsy  in 207 

foot  rot  in 208 

soreteatsin 208 

blown  or  blast  in 208 

yellows  in ,209 

scab  in 209 

purging 210 

grubs  in 210 

winter  keeping  of 211 

roving  habits  of 21 1 

time  for  yarding 212 

mangers  for 213 

regularity  in  feeding 214 

raising  in  the  west 215 

skins,  to  cure  with  wool  on. .  390 

Shipping  articles 2 

Shrimps  and  prawns,  choice  of. ....  473 

Simple  fever 235 

Simple  remedy  for  cough 259 

Simple  ointment*, 263 

Simple  tea  cake 138 

Situation  of  fruit  garden 286 

Size  of  fields 34 

Size,  substitute  for 424 

Skim-milk  cheese 430 

Slashing  trees 20 

Slate-colored  dye 109 

Slinking  the  calf 177 

Slugs  among  trees 295 

Smut  in  wheat,  to  prevent 387 

Snipes  and  woodcocks,  choice  of. . .  472 

Soap,  soft 152 

labor  saving 155 

Windsor  and  Castile 169 

liniment,  compound 263 

camphorated 39*1 


INDEX. 


491 


Soft  muffins 142 

soap 152 

Soil,  deepening  by  ploughing 41 

for  peach  trees 302 

and  preparation  for  madder....  317 

for  hops 335 

mixing 41 

Sore  teats  in  sheep 208 

nipples 261 

throat,  gargle  for 259 

putrid 260 

inflammatory.  260 

Soup,  transparent 267 

portable 447 

Souse,  preparing 156 

Sowing  wheat  and  gra0  seed 20 

spring  grain 31 

Sows  eating  their  pigs 221 

Spaying  swine 219 

Spearmint 435 

Spike,  oil  of 393 

Sponge,  setting  the , ....   126 

cake 143 

Sprains 270,  225 

embrocation  for 251 

Spring  grain,  sowing »    31 

Spruce  beer 165 

Stables,  building 29 

Staggers  in  cattle 196 

Starch,  to  make-  potatoe •  163 

Statement  of  butter  making  by  J.  T. 

Lansing 110 

Wm.  Merrifield...  112 

Chas.  Lyfcn 112 

cheese  making,   by   E . 

P.  &  G.Allen...     114 

Daniel  Marvin...     115 

Phineas  Hardy...     116 

a  crop  of  madder.  ..     316 

Stealing  fruit 286 

Stifle 225 

Stilton  cheese 428 

Stomach,  cramp  in  the 244 

Straining  corn  sugar 369 

Stawberryjam 267 

Strengthening  plaster 202 

String  beans,  how  to  cook 1 61 

Strong  beer  poultice 255 

Stump  burning 21 

Stunted  trees 290 

Substitute  for  size 424 

Sugar,  maple 307,  359 

Indian-  com 365 

Summer  complaint 239 

Suppuration,  poultice  to  hasten  ....  250 

Swellings  in  horses 224 

Swine,  diseases  of 171,  21f> 

measles  in 21 

kidney-worms  in 21 

blind  staggers  in 218 

care  of  breeding 219 

•paying 219 


PAGK 

breed  of. '    ' 

in  fruit  garden 289 

value  of  to  the  farmer 383 

Swiney  in  horses 225 

Swiss  cheese 433 

Syllabub 145 

Syrup,  proper  strength  of. 460 

without  heat 463 

of  poppies 264 


Table  for  admeasurement  of  cattle. . 

of  cubic  measures 

Taming  heifers 

Tansy 

Tar  water 

Tea  cakes 

Testing  the  purity  of  flour 

Throat,  wounds  of. 

foreign  bodies  in  the 

Timber  for  fences 

on  the  prairies 

Time  for  yarding  sheep 

Tincture  of  ginger 

Tomato  figs 

catsup 

sauce 

pickles 

raw 

fried 

Tonic  for  debility  in  females 

Transparent  soap 

Treating  cows  gently 

Treatment  of  horses 

Trees,  price  of  fruit 

order  of  planting 

birds  among  fruit 

stunted 

care  in  planting 

pruning 

mice  girdling 

slugs  among 

nuisance  around  cherry 

fire  blight  in  pear 

black  gum  in  plum 

yellows  in  peach 

borers  in  quince 

to  prevent  moss  on 

to  restore  diseased  peach 

Trembles 

Turbot,  choice  of. 

Turkey,  choice  of 


Udder,  downfall  of  the 

Ulcers,  poultice  for 

lotions  for  scorbutic 

United  States,  glance  at  the  constitu- 
tion of. 


406 
388 
106 
436 
264 
138 
124 
277 
280 
34 
307 
212 
264 
158 
159 
160 
160 
160 
160 
261 
267 
105 
227 
285 
287 
290 


295 


300 
305 
311 
311 
195 
472 
471 


254 
254 


33« 


49* 


INDEX. 


PAGE* 

United  States,  settlement  of  the 342 

officers  of  the 347 

value  of  foreign  money 

in 1  394 

Urine,  difficulty  of. 244 

Useful  domestic  medicines 263 

Utensils,  cost  of  farming 24 

for  dairy 108 


Value  of  swine  to  the  farmer 383 

a  crop  of  broomcorn .... .".  380 

Varieties  of  cheese :T...  427 

Veal,  cutting  up 419 

choice  of. 470 

Vegetable  food,  nutritive  matter  in..  409 

Venison,  choice  of. 471 

Vermont  butter 108 

View  of  shanty 51 

cottage 57 

prairie  farm-house 63 

the  scraper 90 

the  plough 91 

iron  mill 92 

Vinegar  making 154 

Virginia  mode  of  curing  hams 163 

W 

Walls,  coloring  for 421 

W»*  -"the  Revolution 343 

icombustible 283 

•  and  drying  madder 319 

Oton  cake 162 

w  ater,  making  hard  soft 154 

purifying ' 439 

chemical  tests  of. 443 

Weaning  calves 181 

Weaving 475 

Wedding  cake 147 

Weeds,  destruction  of. 390 

Weights  and  measures 123-233 

Well,  cost  of  a 32 

Westphalia  hams,  curing 433 

cheese '..  413 

What  the  emigrant  should  sell 24 


PAGE 

Wheat  and  grass  seed,  sowing  ..    ..  20 

to  prevent  smut  in 387 

price  of,  in  Europe.  ......  385 

Whip  syllabub 144 

White  gooseberry  jam 467 

mildew 303 

Whitewashing  cottages 100 

Whooping  cough 243 

Wild  lands,  how  to  judge  the  quali- 
ty of. 12 

Windsor  and  Castile  soap J 69 

Winter  fruit,  keeping 306 

quarters 30 

wheat 41 

Woodcocks  and  snipes,  choice  of.. .  472 

Wood,  bread  made  of. 128 

land,  proportion  of 33 

mill 91 

heat  from  green  and  dry. .. .  394 

decoction  of  the 266 

Working  and  salting  butter 108 

Worms 239 

Wormwood 438 

Wounds,  to  stop  the  bleeding  of 271 

incised 273 

punctured 274 

contused 275 

poisoned 276 

oftheear 277 

scalp 277 

throat 277 

chest 277 

belly 278 


Yarding  sheep,  time  for 212 

Year,  directions  for  the  first 2£ 

Yeast  poultice 255 

Yeast,  hop 124 

hard 125 

milk 125 

potatoe 164 

Yellows  in  cattle 197 

sheep i, 209 

peach  trees '. 302 

Yellow  water  in  horses 224 


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